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| | {{quote | text=I believe in [[Christianity]] as I believe that the sun has risen. Not only because I see it, but because by it I see everything else... ''Words of C.S. Lewis''}} | | {{quote | text=I believe in [[Christianity]] as I believe that the sun has risen. Not only because I see it, but because by it I see everything else... ''Words of C.S. Lewis''}} |
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| − | <!-- This article was originally written in British English with Oxford Spelling. Please use this when editing the article. -->
| + | {{summary | text=Clive Staples Lewis (November 29, 1898 – November 22, 1963), commonly referred to as C.S. Lewis, was a famous [[Christian]] author and scholar mostly resident in [[England]]. Lewis is known for his work on medieval literature and for his Christian apologetics and fiction, especially the children's series entitled [[The Chronicles of Narnia]].}} |
| − | {{Infobox Writer | |
| − | | name = C. S. Lewis
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| − | | image = C.s.lewis3.JPG <!-- FAIR USE of C.s.lewis3.JPG: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:C.s.lewis3.JPG for rationale -->
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| − | | caption =
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| − | | birth_date = [[29 November]] [[1898]]
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| − | | birth_place = [[Belfast]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Ireland]]<sup><small>1</small></sup>
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| − | | death_date = [[22 November]] [[1963]]
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| − | | death_place = [[Oxford]]
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| − | | occupation = Novelist, Scholar, Broadcaster
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| − | | genre = [[Fantasy literature|Fantasy]], [[Science fiction]], [[Christian apologetics]], [[Children's literature]]
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| − | | movement =
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| − | | magnum_opus = [[The Chronicles of Narnia]]
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| − | | influences = Christianity, [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], [[George MacDonald]], [[G. K. Chesterton]], [[William Blake]], Irish, Norse, and Greek mythology
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| − | | influenced = [[J. K. Rowling]], [[J. I. Packer]]
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| − | | website =
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| − | | footnotes = <sup><small>1</small></sup>Belfast is now in [[Northern Ireland]]. | |
| − | }}
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| − | '''Clive Staples Lewis''' ([[29 November]] [[1898]] – [[22 November]] [[1963]]), commonly referred to as '''C. S. Lewis''', was a Northern [[Irish people|Irish]]<!--Lewis self-identified as Irish; please discuss on the talk page before making any changes here --> author and scholar. Lewis is known for his work on [[medieval literature]], [[Christian apologetics]], literary criticism and fiction. He is best known today for his children’s series ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''.
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| − | Lewis was close friends with [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], the author of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''<!--Not technically a trilogy, see [[Trilogy]]-->, and both were leading figures in the Oxford literary group the [[Inklings]]. Due in part to Tolkien's influence, Lewis converted to [[Christianity]], becoming "a very ordinary layman of the Church of England". {{harvard citation|Lewis|1952|pp=6}} His conversion would have a profound effect on his work and his wartime radio broadcasts on the subject of Christianity brought him wide acclaim.
| + | [[Image:C.S. Lewis.jpg|thumb|C.S. Lewis]] |
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| − | Lewis remained a bachelor for most of his life, marrying the American divorcée [[Joy Gresham]] when he was 57. They would only be married for four years, as Joy died of [[bone cancer]] at the age of 45. Lewis died three years later, one week before his 65th birthday. He is buried at Holy Trinity Church in Oxford.
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| − | Lewis' works have been translated into over 30 languages and continue to sell over a million copies a year; the books that comprise ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' have sold over 100 million copies. A number of stage and screen adaptations of Lewis' works have also been produced, the most notable of which is the 2005 [[Disney]] film adaptation of ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe|The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' which grossed [[United States dollar|US$]]745,000,000 worldwide.
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| − | ==Biography==
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| − | C. S. Lewis was born in Ireland in 1898. As a teenager, he abandoned the Christianity of his home and became interested in mythology and the occult. He enrolled in Oxford, but his studies were interrupted by World War I. He enlisted, was commissioned, and was then wounded in action. While convalescing, he became very close to Jane Moore, the mother of a fellow soldier. They were close, and even lived under the same roof for years, though the details of their relationship are unclear. Thanks in part to his friendship with J. R. R. Tolkien, Lewis came to believe in God at age 31 and in Jesus Christ two years later. He married Joy Gresham, first in a civil ceremony of convenience and later in a Christian ceremony. She died of bone cancer soon thereafter. Lewis himself died of renal failure in 1963.
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| − | === Childhood ===
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| − | Clive Staples Lewis was born in [[Belfast]], [[Ireland]] (now in [[Northern Ireland]]) on [[November 29]] [[1898]]. His father was Albert James Lewis (1863-1929), a [[solicitor]] whose father had come to Ireland from [[Wales]]. His mother was Flora Augusta Hamilton Lewis (1862-1908), the daughter of a [[Church of Ireland]] priest. He had one older brother, [[Warren Lewis|Warren Hamilton Lewis]] (Warnie). At the age of four, shortly after his dog Jacksie was hit by a car, Lewis announced that his name was now Jacksie. At first he would answer to no other name, but later accepted Jacks which became Jack, the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life. At six his family moved into Little Lea, the house the elder Mr. Lewis built for Mrs. Lewis, in [[Strandtown]], Northern Ireland. [[Image:Little Lea.JPG|thumb|Little Lea]]
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| − | Lewis was initially schooled by private tutors before being sent to the [[Wynyard School]] in [[Watford]], [[Hertfordshire]], in 1908, the same year that his mother died of cancer. Lewis's brother had already enrolled there three years previously. The school was soon closed due to a lack of pupils -- the headmaster Robert "Oldie" Capron was soon after committed to an insane asylum. Tellingly, in ''Surprised By Joy'', Lewis would later nickname the school "[[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Belsen]]". <!--The inclusion of the following section has been heavily debated on the talk page; it is suggested you discuss major changes to it there -->There is some speculation by biographer Alan Jacobs that the atmosphere at Wynyard greatly traumatized Lewis and was responsible for the development of "mildly sadomasochistic fantasies". {{harvard citation|Gnopik|2005}} Four of the letters that the [[Adolescence|adolescent]] Lewis wrote to his life-long friend Arthur Greeves (out of an overall correspondence of nearly 300 letters) were signed "Philomastix" ("whip-lover"), and two of those also detailed women he would like to [[Erotic spanking|spank]].{{harvard citation|Hooper|1979|pp=160-170}}
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| − | [[Image:Campbell College.jpg|thumb|right|Campbell College]]
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| − | After Wynyard closed, Lewis attended [[Campbell College]] in the east of Belfast about a mile from his home, but he left after a few months due to respiratory problems. As a result of his illness, Lewis was sent to the health-resort town of [[Malvern, Worcestershire]], where he attended the prep-school Cherbourg House (known to Lewis as "Chartres"). It was during his time at Cherbourg at the age of 13 that he abandoned his childhood Christian faith and became an atheist, becoming interested in mythology and the occult.
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| − | In September 1913 Lewis enrolled at [[Malvern College]], where he would remain until the following June. Later he would describe its culture as a "burning desert of competitive ambition" relieved only by the "oasis" of [[pederasty|pederastic]] loves between upperclassmen and the younger students, which he refused to criticise.<ref>C. S. Lewis, ''Surprised by Joy;'' Harvest Books (1966) p.107</ref> After leaving Malvern he moved to study privately with William T. Kirkpatrick, his father's old tutor and former headmaster of [[Lurgan College]].
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| − | As a young boy, Lewis had a fascination for [[anthropomorphic]] animals, falling in love with [[Beatrix Potter]]'s stories and often writing and illustrating his own animal stories. He and his brother Warnie together created the world of [[Boxen (C. S. Lewis)|Boxen]], inhabited and run by animals. Lewis loved to read, and as his father’s house was filled with books, he felt that finding a book he had not read was as easy as "finding a blade of grass." He also had a mortal fear of spiders and insects as a child, and they often haunted his dreams.
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| − | As a teenager, he was wonderstruck by the songs and legends of what he called ''Northernness''. These legends intensified a longing he had within, a deep desire he would later call "joy." He also grew to love nature — the beauty of nature reminded him of the stories of the North, and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature. His writing in his teenage years moved away from the tales of Boxen, and he began to use different art forms (epic poetry and opera) to try to capture his newfound interest in [[Norse mythology]] and the natural world. Studying with Kirkpatrick (“The Great Knock”, as Lewis afterwards called him) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology, and sharpened his skills in debate and clear reasoning.
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| − | === World War I ===
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| − | [[Image:CSLewis.JPG|left|thumb|Lewis in 1919]]
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| − | Having won a [[scholarship]] to [[University College, Oxford]] in 1916, Lewis enlisted the following year in the [[British Army]] as [[World War I]] raged on, and was commissioned an officer in the third Battalion, [[The Somerset Light Infantry (Prince Albert's)|Somerset Light Infantry]]. Lewis arrived at the front line in the [[Somme]] Valley in [[France]] on his eighteenth birthday.
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| − | On [[15 April]] [[1917]], Lewis was wounded during the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]], and suffered some depression during his convalescence, due in part to missing his Irish home. On his recovery in October, he was assigned to duty in [[Andover, Hampshire|Andover]], England. He was discharged in December 1918, and soon returned to his studies. Lewis received a First in [[Honour Moderations]] (Greek and Latin Literature) in 1920, a First in [[Greats]] (Philosophy and Ancient History) in 1922, and a First in [[English studies|English]] in 1923.
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| − | While being trained for the army Lewis shared a room and became close friends with another cadet, "Paddy" Moore. The two had made a mutual pact that if either died during the war, the survivor would take care of both their families. Paddy was killed in action in 1918 and Lewis kept his promise. Paddy had earlier introduced Lewis to his mother, Jane King Moore, and a friendship very quickly sprang up between Lewis, who was eighteen when they met, and Jane, who was forty-five. The friendship with Mrs. Moore was particularly important to Lewis while he was recovering from his wounds in hospital and his father refused to visit him.
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| − | === Jane Moore ===
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| − | There has been some speculation among some Lewis scholars as to the nature of the relationship between Lewis and Jane Moore. Lewis for most of his life introduced Moore as his "mother" to all his acquaintances. Lewis was exceptionally reticent on the matter in his autobiography, writing only "All I can or need to say is that my earlier hostility to the emotions was very fully and variously avenged". The biographer [[A. N. Wilson]] declared categorically that they had been intimate during the period of his convalescence, but this seems to be based on few and poorly interpreted letters, and owes something to Wilson's tendency to psychological interpretation. Walter Hooper, Lewis's literary executor, allowed that it was possible, but as a late acquaintance his data are all derivative, as are Wilson's. George Sayer, on the other hand, was present during these years -- as a student of Lewis and later a friend -- and denies the possibility emphatically ("Jack" appendix re Wilson's claim). At any rate, their friendship was certainly a very close one. In December 1917 Lewis wrote in a letter to his childhood friend Arthur Greeves that Jane and Greeves were "the two people who matter most to me in the world".
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| − | After the war, in 1918 or 1919, Lewis and Moore shared a house, although Lewis also kept rooms at his college, and in 1930, they and Lewis's brother, Warren Lewis, moved into "The Kilns", a house in Risinghurst, Headington (a suburb of Oxford). They all contributed financially to the purchase of the house, which passed to [[Lady Dunbar of Hempriggs]], Moore's daughter, when Warren died in 1973.
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| − | Moore has been much criticized for being possessive and controlling and making Lewis do a lot of housework. However, she was also a warmhearted, affectionate and hospitable woman who was well liked by her neighbours at The Kilns. "She was generous and taught me to be generous, too", Lewis said to his friend George Sayer.
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| − | Moore suffered from [[dementia]] in her later years and was eventually moved into a nursing home, where she died in 1951. Lewis visited her every day in this home until her death.
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| − | === "My Irish life" ===
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| − | [[Image:CSLewisPlaque.jpg|thumb|Plaque on a park-bench in [[Bangor, County Down|Bangor]], [[County Down]] ]]
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| − | Lewis experienced a certain cultural shock upon first arriving in England: "No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England," Lewis wrote in ''[[Surprised by Joy]]''. "The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons. But what was worst was the English landscape ... I have made up the quarrel since; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal."
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| − | Since boyhood Lewis immersed himself in [[Irish mythology]] and [[Irish literature|literature]] and expressed an interest in the [[Irish language]]. He developed a particular fondness for [[W. B. Yeats|W. B. Yeats]], in part because of Yeats’ use of Ireland’s [[Celt]]ic heritage in poetry. In a letter to a friend Lewis wrote, "I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart, whom I am sure you would delight in, W. B. Yeats. He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology." In 1921, Lewis had the opportunity to meet Yeats on two occasions, since Yeats had moved to Oxford.
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| − | Surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the [[Celtic Revival]] movement, Lewis wrote: "I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met: perhaps his appeal is purely Irish — if so, then thank the gods that I am Irish." Early in his career, Lewis considered sending his work to the major [[Dublin]] publishers, writing: "If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher, I think I shall try Maunsel, those Dublin people, and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school." After his conversion to Christianity, his interests gravitated towards Christian spirituality and away from Celtic mysticism.
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| − | Perhaps to help cope with his [[Homesickness|homesick]] feelings, Lewis occasionally expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism toward the [[English people|English]]. Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman he wrote: "Like all Irish people who meet in England we ended by criticisms of the inevitable flippancy and dullness of the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] race. After all, ami, there is no doubt that the Irish are the only people ... I would not gladly live or die among another folk."
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| − | Due to his Oxford career Lewis did indeed live and die among another folk, and he often expressed regret at having to leave Ireland. Throughout his life, he sought out the company of his fellow Irish living in England and visited Northern Ireland regularly, even spending his honeymoon there. He called this "my Irish life".
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| − | === Conversion to Christianity ===
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| − | Although raised in a church going family in the [[Church of Ireland]], Lewis became an atheist at the age of 13, and remained as such until he was 31 years old. His separation from Christianity began when he started to view his religion as a chore and as a duty; around this time he also gained an interest in the occult as his studies expanded to include such topics. Lewis quoted [[Lucretius]] as having one of the strongest arguments for atheism:
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| − | :''Nequaquam nobis divinitus esse paratam''
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| − | :''Naturam rerum; tanta stat praedita culpa''
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| − | :''Had God designed the world, it would not be''
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| − | :''A world so frail and faulty as we see.''
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| − | Though an atheist at the time, Lewis later described his young self (in ''[[Surprised by Joy]]'') as being [[Paradox|paradoxically]] "very angry with God for not existing".
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| − | Influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], and by [[G.K. Chesterton]]'s book, ''[[The Everlasting Man]]'', he slowly rediscovered Christianity. He fought greatly up to the moment of his conversion noting, "I came into Christianity kicking and screaming." He described his last struggle in ''[[Surprised by Joy]]'':
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| − | :"You must picture me alone in that room in Magdalen, night after night, feeling, whenever my mind lifted even for a second from my work, the steady, unrelenting approach of Him whom I so earnestly desired not to meet. That which I greatly feared had at last come upon me. In the Trinity Term of 1929 I gave in, and admitted that God was God, and knelt and prayed: perhaps, that night, the most dejected and reluctant convert in all England."
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| − | After his conversion to Theism in 1929, Lewis converted to Christianity in 1931. Lewis's 1931 conversion followed a long discussion and late-night walk with his close friends Tolkien and [[Hugo Dyson]]; after it Lewis converted to Christianity, while on his way to the Zoo with his brother, and joined the [[Church of England]] -- somewhat to the regret of the devout [[Roman Catholic]] Tolkien, who had hoped he would convert to Catholicism. It should be noted that Chesterton was a Catholic as well.
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| − | Although a committed [[Church of England|Anglican]], Lewis' beliefs in many respects inclined to the Catholic rather than the Protestant tradition; for example, he accepted the Catholic doctrine of [[mortal sin]], implying that he believed Christians could lose their salvation (which is at odds with Reformed views on [[Justification (theology)|justification]]).{{fact}} This opinion was expressed by the demon Screwtape, in his book ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]''.{{fact}}
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| − | Lewis was also sympathetic to the Catholic doctrine of [[Purgatory]]. His references to the subject in his final work, ''[[Letters to Malcolm]]'', find him taking a line similar to the Roman Catholic theologian [[John Henry Newman]]'s approach in "[[The Dream of Gerontius]]".{{fact}} (It seems likely that Newman in turn took his position from [[Catherine of Genoa]]'s "Purgation and Purgatory".){{fact}}
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| − | Also, Lewis is sometimes considered to have serious elements of [[Orthodox Christianity]] belief. Literary and church figures quote his works as sources of Lewis' hidden Orthodox Christian belief.{{fact}}
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| − | === Joy Gresham ===
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| − | [[Image:Joy_Gresham.jpg|thumb|left|Joy Gresham]]
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| − | The most important event in Lewis's later life was the arrival in England of [[Joy Gresham|Joy Davidman Gresham]], an American writer of Jewish background and a convert from atheistic communism to Christianity. She was separated from her husband and came to England with her two sons, [[David Gresham|David]] and [[Douglas Gresham]]. Lewis at first regarded her as an agreeable intellectual companion and personal friend, and it was at least overtly on this level that he agreed to enter into a civil marriage contract with her so that she could continue to live in the UK. It then became clear that she had terminal bone cancer, and the relationship developed to the point that they sought a Christian marriage. Since she was divorced, this was not straightforward in the Church of England at the time, but a friend, the Rev. Peter Bide, performed the ceremony at Joy's hospital bed.
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| − | Joy's cancer soon went into a remarkable yet brief remission, and the couple lived as a family (together with Warren Lewis) until her eventual relapse and death. Lewis’s book ''[[A Grief Observed]]'' describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that Lewis originally released it under the pseudonym N.W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him (ultimately too many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief, and he made his authorship public).
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| − | Lewis continued to raise Joy's two sons after her death. Douglas Gresham is an active Christian and remains involved in the affairs of the Lewis estate, though David Gresham returned to his mother's original Jewish faith. The two brothers are now estranged.
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| − | === Illness and Death ===
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| − | In early June 1961, Lewis began experiencing medical problems and was diagnosed with [[nephritis|inflammation of the kidneys]] which resulted in [[Bacteremia|blood poisoning]]. His illness caused him to miss the autumn term at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], though his health gradually began improving in 1962 and he returned that April. Lewis' health continued to improve, and according to his friend George Sayer, Lewis was fully himself by the spring of 1963. However, on [[July 15]] [[1963]] he fell ill and was admitted to hospital. The next day at 5:00 pm, Lewis suffered a [[heart attack]] and lapsed into a coma, unexpectedly awaking the following day at 2:00 pm. After he was discharged from hospital, Lewis returned to the Kilns though he was too ill to return to work. As a result, he resigned from his post at Cambridge in August. Lewis' condition continued to decline and in mid-November, he was diagnosed with end stage [[Chronic renal failure|renal failure]]. On [[November 22]] [[1963]], Lewis collapsed in his bedroom at 5:30 pm and died a few minutes later. His death came exactly one week before his 65th birthday. He is buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church in Oxford.
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| − | Media coverage of his death was overshadowed by news of the [[assassination of President John F. Kennedy]], which occurred on the same day, as did the death of [[Aldous Huxley]], author of ''[[Brave New World]]'' (This coincidence was the inspiration for [[Peter Kreeft]]'s book ''[[Between Heaven and Hell (novel)|Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley]]'').
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| − | == Career ==
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| − | === The scholar ===
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| − | [[Image:MagdalenCollegeOxford20040613 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|Magdalen College]]
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| − | Lewis taught as a fellow of [[Magdalen College, Oxford]], for nearly thirty years, from 1925 to 1954, and later was the first [[Professor of Medieval and Renaissance English, Cambridge University|Professor of Medieval and Renaissance Literature]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and a fellow of [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]]. Using this position, he argued that there was no such thing as an [[English Renaissance]]. Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages, especially its use of allegory. His ''The Allegory of Love'' (1936) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives like the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]''. Lewis wrote several prefaces to old works of literature and poetry, like ''Layamon's Brut''. His preface to John Milton’s poem ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' is still one of the most important criticisms of that work. His last academic work, ''The Discarded Image, an Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964), is a summary of the medieval world view, the "discarded image" of the cosmos in his title.
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| − | Lewis was a prolific writer and a member of the literary discussion society [[Inklings|The Inklings]] with his friends [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], [[Charles Williams (UK writer)|Charles Williams]], and [[Owen Barfield]]. At Oxford he was the tutor of, among other undergraduates, poet [[John Betjeman]] and critic [[Kenneth Tynan]]. Curiously, the religious and conservative Betjeman detested Lewis, whereas the anti-Establishment Tynan retained a life-long admiration for him. {{harvard citation|Tonkin|2005|pp=}}
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| − | Of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], Lewis writes in [[Surprised by Joy]] (chapter X1V, p173):
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| − | <blockquote>
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| − | "When I began teaching for the English Faculty, I made two other friends, both Christians (these queer people seemed now to pop up on every side) who were later to give me much help in getting over the last stile. They were H.V.V. Dyson ... and J.R.R. Tolkien. Friendship with the latter marked the breakdown of two old prejudices. At my first coming into the world I had been (implicitly) warned never to trust a Papist, and at my first coming into the English Faculty (explicitly) never to trust a philologist. Tolkien was both."
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| − | </blockquote>
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| − | === The author ===
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| − | [[Image:C.s.lewis.jpg|thumb|175px|C.S. Lewis with his books]]
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| − | In addition to his scholarly work, Lewis wrote a number of popular novels, including his [[science fiction]] [[Space Trilogy]] and his [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] [[Narnia]] books, most dealing implicitly with Christian themes such as sin, the Fall, and redemption.
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| − | ==== The Pilgrim's Regress ====
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| − | {{main|The Pilgrim's Regress}}
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| − | His first novel after becoming a Christian was ''The Pilgrim's Regress'', his take on [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'' which depicted his own experience with Christianity. The book was critically panned at the time, particularly for its esoteric nature - as to read it requires a close familiarity with classical sources.
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| − | In a footnote of the biography ''D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones: The Fight of Faith 1939-1981'' by [[Iain Murray]], Murray notes the following: "Lewis is said to have valued ML-J's appreciation and encouragement when the early edition of his ''Pilgrim's Regress'' was not selling well. Vincent Lloyd-Jones and Lewis knew each other well, being contemporaries at Oxford. ML-J met the author again and they had a long conversation when they found both themselves on the same boat to Ireland in 1953. On the later occasion, to the question, 'When are you going to write another book?', Lewis replied, 'When I understand the meaning of prayer'."
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| − | ==== Space Trilogy ====
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| − | {{main|Space Trilogy}}
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| − | His ''Space Trilogy'' or ''Ransom Trilogy'' novels (also called the ''Cosmic Trilogy'') dealt with what Lewis saw as the then-current dehumanizing trends in modern science fiction. The first book, ''[[Out of the Silent Planet]]'', was apparently written following a conversation with his friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] about these trends; Lewis agreed to write a "space travel" story and Tolkien a "time travel" one. Tolkien’s story, "[[The Lost Road and Other Writings|The Lost Road]]", a tale connecting his Middle-earth mythology and the modern world, was never completed. Lewis’s character of [[Elwin Ransom|Ransom]] is based in part on Tolkien, a fact that Tolkien himself alludes to in his [[Letters|Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien]]. The last novel in the Trilogy also contains numerous references to Tolkien's fictional universe, and can be seen as partially as a homage to Tolkien. The minor character Jules, from ''[[That Hideous Strength]]'', is an obvious caricature of [[H. G. Wells]]. Many of the ideas presented in the books, particularly in ''That Hideous Strength'', are dramatizations of arguments made more formally in Lewis’s ''[[The Abolition of Man]]''.
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| − | Another novel, ''[[The Dark Tower (1977 novel)|The Dark Tower]]'', was begun, but never finished. It failed to see print until 1977, 13 years after [[Walter Hooper]] allegedly saved the manuscript from a bonfire. (Portions of Hooper's story have been shown to be unreliable.) Controversies have arisen over whether Lewis intended it to be a part of the Space series or not, and even whether Lewis actually wrote all of it.
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| − | *The trilogy-supporters claim that ''The Dark Tower'' represents a shift in style, characters (Ransom is a bit player), setting (an alternate Universe, rather than the Sol system), and even subject matter. Its questionable [[provenance]] is also a problem, leading [[Kathryn Lindskoog]] and others to claim that it is a forgery.
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| − | *However, supporters of ''The Dark Tower'' claim that ''That Hideous Strength'' is also a significantly different novel from the first two, being more loosely and broadly plotted, much longer, and different in focus: less intent on presenting a view of the [[Sol system]] and [[philosophy]]/[[Christianity]] and more intent on tackling very specific religious and, strikingly, [[social issues]]. Finally, they say, Lewis did not claim to write a Space Trilogy; he wrote a series that, when he died, happened to consist of three books.
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| − | Indisputably, ''The Dark Tower'' is an [[unfinished work]], and there is no sign Lewis intended to finish it.
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| − | ==== The Chronicles of Narnia ====
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| − | [[Image:Mourne mountains.jpg|thumb|right|The Mountains of Mourne]]
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| − | {{main|The Chronicles of Narnia}}
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| − | ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' is a series of seven [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] novels for children and is considered a classic of [[children's literature]]. Written between 1949 and 1954 and illustrated by [[Pauline Baynes]], the series is Lewis' most popular work having sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages {{Harvard citation|Kelly|2006|pp=}}{{Harvard citation|Guthmann|2005|pp=}}. It has been adapted several times, complete or in part, for [[radio]], [[television]], [[theatre|stage]], and [[film|cinema]]. The series has been published in several different orders, and the preferred reading order for the series is often debated among fans.
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| − | The books contain many allusions to [[Christianity|Christian]] ideas which are easily accessible to younger readers; however, the books are not weighty, and can be read for their adventure, colour and richness of ideas alone. Because of this, they have become favourites of children and adults, Christians and non-Christians. In addition to Christian themes, Lewis also borrows characters from [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]] as well as traditional British and Irish [[fairy tale]]s. Lewis reportedly based his depiction of Narnia on the geography and scenery of the [[Mourne Mountains]] and "that part of [[Rostrevor]] which overlooks [[Carlingford Lough]]". Lewis cited [[George MacDonald]]'s Christian fairy tales as an influence in writing the series.
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| − | | |
| − | ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' present the adventures of children who play central roles in the unfolding history of the fictional [[Fictional universe|realm]] of [[Narnia (world)|Narnia]], a place where [[talking animal|animals talk]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] is common, and [[goodness and value theory|good]] battles [[evil]]. In the majority of the books, children from our world find themselves transported to Narnia by a magical portal. Once there, they are quickly involved in setting some wrong to right with the help of the lion [[Aslan]] who is the central character of the series.
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| − | | |
| − | ==== Other works ====
| |
| − | Lewis wrote a number of works on Heaven and Hell. One of these, ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' is a short novella. A few residents of Hell take a bus ride to Heaven, where they are met by people they had known on earth. The proposition is that they can stay (in which case they can call the place where they had come from Purgatory, not Hell): but many find it not to their taste. The title is a reference to [[William Blake]]'s ''[[The Marriage of Heaven and Hell]]'', a concept that Lewis found repugnant. This work deliberately echoes two other more famous works with a similar theme: the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' of [[Dante|Dante Aligheri]], and Bunyan's ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]''. Another short work, ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'', consists of letters of advice from a senior [[demon]], Screwtape, to his nephew Wormwood, on the best ways to tempt a particular human and secure his [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]]. Lewis’s last novel was ''[[Till We Have Faces]]'' — many believe (as he did) that it is his most mature and masterful work of fiction, but it was never a popular success. It is a retelling of the myth of [[Cupid and Psyche]] from the unusual perspective of Psyche's sister. It is deeply concerned with religious ideas, but the setting is entirely pagan, and the connections with specific Christian beliefs are left implicit.
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| − | | |
| − | Before Lewis’ conversion to Christianity, he published two books: ''[[Spirits in Bondage]]'', a collection of poems, and ''[[Dymer]]'', a single narrative poem. Both were published under the pen name Clive Hamilton.
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| − | | |
| − | Lewis penned [[A Grief Observed]] after the death of his wife ''(see [[C._S._Lewis#Joy_Gresham|Joy Gresham]] above)''.
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| − | | |
| − | === The Christian apologist===
| |
| − | In addition to his career as an English professor and an author of fiction, Lewis is regarded by many as one of the most influential [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologists]] of his time; ''[[Mere Christianity]]'' was voted best book of the twentieth century by ''[[Christianity Today]]'' magazine in 2000. Lewis was very much interested in presenting a reasonable case for the truth of Christianity. ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', ''[[The Problem of Pain]]'', and ''[[Miracles (book)|Miracles]]'' were all concerned, to one degree or another, with refuting popular objections to Christianity. He also became known as a popular lecturer and broadcaster, and some of his writing (including much of ''Mere Christianity'') originated as scripts for radio talks or lectures.
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| − | | |
| − | Due to Lewis' approach to religious belief as a skeptic, and his following conversion by the evidence, he has become popularly known as ''The Apostle to the Skeptics''. Consequently, his books on Christianity examine common difficulties in accepting Christianity, such as "How could a good God allow pain to exist in the world?", which he examined in detail in ''The Problem of Pain''.
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| − | | |
| − | Lewis also wrote an autobiography entitled ''[[Surprised by Joy]]'', which places special emphasis his own conversion. (It was written before he met his wife, [[Joy Gresham]]; the title of the book came from the first line of a poem by [[William Wordsworth]].) His essays and public speeches on Christian belief, many of which were collected in ''[[God in the Dock]]'' and ''[[The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses]]'', remain popular today.
| |
| − | | |
| − | His most famous works, the [[Chronicles of Narnia]], contain many strong Christian messages and are often considered [[allegory]]. Lewis, an expert on the subject of allegory, maintained that the books were not allegory, and preferred to call the Christian aspects of them "suppositional". As Lewis wrote in a letter to a Mrs Hook in December of 1958:
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| − | | |
| − | :"If Aslan represented the immaterial Deity in the same way in which Giant Despair <nowiki>[</nowiki>a character in ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]''<nowiki>]</nowiki> represents despair, he would be an allegorical figure. In reality however he is an invention giving an imaginary answer to the question, 'What might Christ become like, if there really were a world like Narnia and He chose to be incarnate and die and rise again in that world as He actually has done in ours?' This is not allegory at all." {{Harvard citation|Martindale|Root|1990|pp=}}
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| − | | |
| − | ==== Trilemma ====
| |
| − | In the book ''Mere Christianity'', Lewis famously criticized the idea that Jesus was a great moral teacher whose claims to divinity were false:
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| − | | |
| − | : "I am trying here to prevent anyone saying the really foolish thing that people often say about Him: I’m ready to accept Jesus as a great moral teacher, but I don’t accept his claim to be God. That is the one thing we must not say. A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic — on the level with the man who says he is a poached egg — or else he would be the Devil of Hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the [[Son of God]], or else a madman or something worse. You can shut him up for a fool, you can spit at him and kill him as a demon or you can fall at his feet and call him Lord and God, but let us not come with any patronising nonsense about his being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to."
| |
| − | | |
| − | According to the argument, most people are willing to accept Jesus Christ as a great [[morality|moral]] teacher, but the [[Gospels]] record that Jesus made many claims to [[divinity]], either explicitly — ("I and the father are one." [[Gospel of John|John]] 10:30; when asked by the High priest whether he was the Son of God, Jesus replied "It is as you said" [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:64) — or implicitly, by assuming authority only God could have ("the [[Son of Man]] has authority on earth to forgive sins" [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 9:6). Lewis said there are three options:
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| − | | |
| − | # Jesus was telling falsehoods and knew it, and so he was a liar.
| |
| − | # Jesus was telling falsehoods but believed he was telling the truth, and so he was insane.
| |
| − | # Jesus was telling the truth, and so he was divine.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Lewis’s argument, which stems from the medieval [[aut deus aut malus homo]] ("either God or an evil man"), was later expanded by the Christian apologist [[Josh McDowell]] (in his book ''More than a Carpenter'') to serve as a logical proof to Jesus’s divinity. It is from this latter development that the term "[[trilemma]]" actually comes. The term is often used to refer to both arguments, assuming that in fact they are one and the same.
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| − | | |
| − | Lewis's "trilemma" appeared at a time when secular scholars, such as [[David Friedrich Strauss]], had portrayed Jesus' [[miracles]] and [[resurrection]] as [[myths]]. The concept that Jesus was not God but a wise man had gained ground in academic circles. The trilemma opposes the idea that Jesus was a wise mortal teacher without relying on miracles to prove it. In accepting the premise that Jesus had claimed divinity, he contradicted a historical viewpoint, popularized by [[H. G. Wells]] in his ''[[Outline of History]]'', that Jesus had made no such claim.
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| − | | |
| − | == Legacy ==
| |
| − | [[Image:Statue_of_C.S._Lewis,_Belfast.jpg|right|thumb|220px|A statue of C.S. Lewis in [[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]]]]
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| − | | |
| − | Lewis has continued to attract a wide readership, particularly for his fiction (whose Christian underpinning passes some readers by altogether) and for his Christian apologetic, which is read and quoted by believers whose background ranges from Roman Catholic to Mormon.
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| − | | |
| − | Interest in Lewis has resulted in several biographies (including books written by close friends of Lewis, among them [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] and [[George Sayer]]), at least one play about his life, and a 1993 film, ''[[Shadowlands]]'', based on an original stage and television play. The film fictionalises his relationship with [[Joy Gresham]].
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| − | | |
| − | Many books have been inspired by Lewis, including ''[[A Severe Mercy]]'' by his correspondent [[Sheldon Vanauken]]. The Chronicles of Narnia have been particularly influential. Modern children's authors such as [[Daniel Handler]] (''[[A Series of Unfortunate Events]]''), [[Eoin Colfer]] (''[[Artemis Fowl (series)|Artemis Fowl]]''), [[Philip Pullman]] (''[[His Dark Materials]]'' trilogy), and [[J. K. Rowling]] (''[[Harry Potter]]'') have been more or less influenced by Lewis's series. Pullman, a critic of Lewis {{harvard citation|Ezard|2002|pp=}}, considers him a negative influence. Authors of adult fantasy literature such as
| |
| − | [[Tim Powers]] have also testified to being influenced by Lewis's work.
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| − | | |
| − | Most of Lewis’s posthumous work has been edited by his [[literary executor]], [[Walter Hooper]]. An independent Lewis scholar, the late [[Kathryn Lindskoog]], argued in several books that Hooper's scholarship is not reliable and that he has made false statements and attributed forged works to Lewis. (See ''[[The Dark Tower (1977 novel)|The Dark Tower]]''.) Scholars in the field of Lewis studies generally doubt these charges.
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| − | | |
| − | A bronze statue of Lewis looking into a wardrobe stands in Belfast's Holywood Arches in front of the Holywood Road Library.
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| − | | |
| − | Lewis was strongly opposed to the creation of live-action versions of his works due to the technology at the time. His major concern was that the anthropomorphic animal characters "when taken out of narrative into actual visibility, always turn into buffoonery or nightmare". This was said in the context of the 1950s, when technology would not allow the special effects required to make a coherent, robust film version of Narnia. Whether or not Lewis would be happy with the CGI creations of [[The Chronicles of Narnia film series|''The Chronicles of Narnia'' film series]], naturally, cannot be known.
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| − | | |
| − | The song "The Earth Will Shake" performed by [[Thrice]] is based on one of his poems, and the band [[Sixpence None the Richer]] are named after a passage in ''Mere Christianity''. Caedmon's Call also wrote a song based on ''The Great Divorce'' called "The High Country".
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| − | | |
| − | In Oxford, England (home of [[Magdalen College]] where Lewis was a longtime fellow), a C.S. Lewis society still meets to discuss papers on Lewis's work and generally appreciate all things Lewisian; [[Walter Hooper]] is an occasional attendee.
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| − | | |
| − | == Criticism ==
| |
| − | Despite his popularity, Lewis is not without his critics. [[Philip Pullman]], [[atheism|atheist]] {{harvard citation|Dodd|2004|pp=}} and author of the children's series ''[[His Dark Materials]]'', openly criticised Lewis for the religious "propaganda" in ''The Chronicles of Narnia''. Speaking at the [[Hay Festival|Guardian Hay Festival]], Pullman said the ''Narnia'' stories were "blatantly [[racism|racist]]" and "monumentally [[Misogyny|disparaging of women]]".{{harvard citation|Ezard|2002|pp=}} In an interview with ''[[The Observer]]'', Pullman criticised the film adaptation of ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe|The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' by saying, "if the Disney corporation wants to market this film as a great Christian story, they'll just have to tell lies about it". He added, "it's not the presence of Christian doctrine I object to so much as the absence of Christian virtue" and that the books contained "a peevish blend of racist, misogynistic and reactionary prejudice". {{harvard citation|BBC News|2005|p=}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | In a 2005 article for [[The Guardian]], [[Polly Toynbee]] also criticised the ''Narnia'' books, writing that "Lewis weaves his dreams to invade children's minds with Christian iconography that is part fairytale wonder and joy - but heavily laden with guilt, blame, sacrifice and a suffering that is dark with emotional sadism." Toynbee also stated than Narnia is populated with "worlds of obedient plebs and inferior folk eager to bend at the knee to any passing superior white persons" and that "Narnia is the perfect Republican, muscular Christianity for America - that warped, distorted neo-fascist strain that thinks might is proof of right". {{harvard citation|Toynbee|2005|p=}}
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| − | | |
| − | {{Details|The Chronicles of Narnia#Criticism}}
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| − | | |
| − | Criticism of Lewis is not limited to his children's books. In his book ''Losing Faith in Faith: From Preacher to Atheist'', former preacher [[Dan Barker]] discusses ''Mere Christianity'' and takes issue with Lewis' belief in [[Moral absolutism|absolute morality]], stating "any morality which is based on an unyielding structure above and beyond humanity is dangerous to human beings. History is filled with examples of what religious "morality" has done to worsen our lot". He dismisses the popularity of Lewis' arguments, writing "Lewis can afford to relax, I think, because most of his readers are Christians who buy the book because they are looking for substantiation. They are not skeptical searchers of truth. Any writer can capture a sympathetic audience by capitalizing on those areas that everyone "knows" to be right". {{harvard citation|Barker|1992|pp=}}
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| − | | |
| − | == Bibliography ==
| |
| − | <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
| |
| − | === Nonfiction ===
| |
| − | * ''[[The Allegory of Love]]: A Study in Medieval Tradition'' (1936)
| |
| − | * ''[[Rehabilitations]] and other essays'' (1939) — with two essays not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
| |
| − | * ''[[The Personal Heresy]]: A Controversy'' (with [[E. M. W. Tillyard]], 1939)
| |
| − | * ''[[The Problem of Pain]]'' (1940)
| |
| − | * ''[[A Preface to Paradise Lost]]'' (1942)
| |
| − | * ''[[The Abolition of Man]]'' (1943)
| |
| − | * ''[[Beyond Personality]]'' (1944)
| |
| − | * ''[[Miracles (book)|Miracles]]: A Preliminary Study'' (1947, revised 1960)
| |
| − | * ''[[Arthurian Torso]]'' (1948; on [[Charles Williams]]'s poetry)
| |
| − | * ''[[Mere Christianity]]'' (1952; based on radio talks of 1941-1944)
| |
| − | * ''[[English Literature in the Sixteenth Century]] Excluding Drama'' (1954)
| |
| − | * ''[[Major British Writers, Vol I]]'' (1954), Contribution on Edmund Spenser
| |
| − | * ''[[Surprised by Joy]]: The Shape of My Early Life'' (1955; [[autobiography]])
| |
| − | * ''[[Reflections on the Psalms]]'' (1958)
| |
| − | * ''[[The Four Loves]]'' (1960)
| |
| − | * ''[[Studies in Words]]'' (1960)
| |
| − | * ''[[An Experiment in Criticism]]'' (1961)
| |
| − | * ''[[A Grief Observed]]'' (1961; first published under the [[pseudonym]] «N. W. Clerk»)
| |
| − | * ''Selections from [[Layamon]]'s [[Brut]]'' (ed. G L Brook, 1963 ''Oxford University Press'') introduction
| |
| − | * ''[[Prayer: Letters to Malcolm]]'' (1964)
| |
| − | * ''[[The Discarded Image]]: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964)
| |
| − | * ''[[Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Literature]]'' (1966) — not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
| |
| − | * ''[[Spenser's Images of Life]]'' (ed. [[Alastair Fowler]], 1967)
| |
| − | * ''[[Letters to an American Lady]]'' (1967)
| |
| − | * ''[[Christian Reflections]] (1967; essays and papers)
| |
| − | * ''[[Selected Literary Essays]]'' (1969) — not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
| |
| − | * ''[[God in the Dock]]: Essays on Theology and Ethics'' (1970), = ''[[Undeceptions]]'' (1971) — all included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
| |
| − | * ''[[Of Other Worlds]]'' (1982; essays) — with one essay not included in ''Essay Collection''
| |
| − | * ''[[Present Concerns]]'' (1986; essays)
| |
| − | * ''[[All My Road Before Me]]: The Diary of C. S. Lewis 1922-27'' (1993)
| |
| − | * ''[[Essay Collection]]: Literature, Philosophy and Short Stories'' (2000)
| |
| − | * ''[[Essay Collection]]: Faith, Christianity and the Church'' (2000)
| |
| − | * ''[[Collected Letters]], Vol. I: [[Family Letters 1905-1931]]'' (2000)
| |
| − | * ''[[Collected Letters]], Vol. II: [[Books, Broadcasts and War 1931-1949]]'' (2004)
| |
| − | * ''[[Collected Letters]], Vol. III: [[Narnia, Cambridge and Joy 1950-1963]]'' (2006)
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| − | | |
| − | === Fiction ===
| |
| − | * ''[[The Pilgrim's Regress]]'' ([[1933 in literature|1933]])
| |
| − | * [[Space Trilogy]]
| |
| − | ** ''[[Out of the Silent Planet]]'' ([[1938 in literature|1938]])
| |
| − | ** ''[[Perelandra]]'' ([[1943 in literature|1943]])
| |
| − | ** ''[[That Hideous Strength]]'' ([[1946 in literature|1946]])
| |
| − | * ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'' ([[1942 in literature|1942]])
| |
| − | * ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' ([[1945 in literature|1945]])
| |
| − | * [[The Chronicles of Narnia]]
| |
| − | ** ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' ([[1950 in literature|1950]])
| |
| − | ** ''[[Prince Caspian]]'' ([[1951 in literature|1951]])
| |
| − | ** ''[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader]]'' ([[1952 in literature|1952]])
| |
| − | ** ''[[The Silver Chair]]'' ([[1953 in literature|1953]])
| |
| − | ** ''[[The Horse and His Boy]]'' ([[1954 in literature|1954]])
| |
| − | ** ''[[The Magician's Nephew]]'' ([[1955 in literature|1955]])
| |
| − | ** ''[[The Last Battle]]'' ([[1956 in literature|1956]])
| |
| − | * ''[[Till We Have Faces]]'' (1956)
| |
| − | * ''[[Screwtape Proposes a Toast]]'' ([[1961 in literature|1961]]) (an addition to ''The Screwtape Letters'')
| |
| − | * ''[[Letters to Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer]]'' ([[1964 in literature|1964]])
| |
| − | * ''[[The Dark Tower (1977 novel)|The Dark Tower]] and other stories'' ([[1977 in literature|1977]])
| |
| − | * ''[[Boxen (C. S. Lewis)|Boxen: The Imaginary World of the Young C. S. Lewis]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, [[1985 in literature|1985]])
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| − | | |
| − | === Poetry ===
| |
| − | * ''[[Spirits in Bondage]]'' (1919; published under [[pseudonym]] Clive Hamilton)
| |
| − | * ''[[Dymer]]'' (1926; published under pseudonym Clive Hamilton)
| |
| − | * ''[[Narrative Poems]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, 1969; includes ''Dymer'')
| |
| − | * ''[[The Collected Poems of C. S. Lewis]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, 1994; includes ''Spirits in Bondage'')
| |
| − | </div>
| |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | == Books about Lewis ==
| |
| − | <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
| |
| − | * John Beversluis, ''C. S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion''. Eerdmans, 1985. ISBN 0-8028-0046-7
| |
| − | * [[Humphrey Carpenter]], ''The Inklings: C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and their friends''. George Allen & Unwin, 1978. ISBN 0-04-809011-5
| |
| − | * Joe R. Christopher & Joan K. Ostling, ''C. S. Lewis: An Annotated Checklist of Writings about him and his Works''. Kent State University Press, n.d. (1972). ISBN 0-87338-138-6
| |
| − | * Michael Coren, ''The Man Who Created Narnia: The Story of C.S. Lewis''. Eerdmans Pub Co, Reprint edition 1996. ISBN 0-8028-3822-7
| |
| − | * [[James Como]], Branches to Heaven: The Geniuses of C. S. Lewis, Spence, 1998.
| |
| − | * James Como, Remembering C. S. Lewis (3rd ed. of C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table)''. Ignatius, 2006
| |
| − | * [[Colin Duriez]] and [[David Porter]], ''The Inklings Handbook: The Lives, Thought and Writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Their Friends''. 2001, ISBN 1-902694-13-9
| |
| − | * Colin Duriez, ''Tolkien and C.S. Lewis: The Gift of Friendship''. Paulist Press, 2003. ISBN 1-58768-026-2
| |
| − | * Bruce L. Edwards, ''Not a Tame Lion: The Spiritual World of Narnia''. Tyndale. 2005.
| |
| − | * Bruce L. Edwards, ''Further Up and Further In: Understanding C. S. Lewis’s The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe''. Broadman and Holman, 2005.
| |
| − | * Alastair Fowler, 'C.S. Lewis: Supervisor', Yale Review, Vol. 91, No. 4 (October 2003).
| |
| − | * Jocelyn Gibb (ed.), ''Light on C. S. Lewis''. Geoffrey Bles, 1965 & Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1976. ISBN 0-15-652000-1
| |
| − | * Douglas Gilbert & Clyde Kilby, ''C.S. Lewis: Images of His World''. Eerdmans, 1973 & 2005. ISBN 0-8028-2800-0
| |
| − | * David Graham (ed.), ''We Remember C.S. Lewis''. Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0-8054-2299-4
| |
| − | * [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] & [[Walter Hooper]], ''C. S. Lewis: A Biography''. Fully revised & expanded edition. HarperCollins, 2002. ISBN 0-00-628164-8
| |
| − | * [[Douglas Gresham]], ''Jack's Life: A Memory of C.S. Lewis''. Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0-8054-3246-9
| |
| − | * Douglas Gresham, ''Lenten Lands: My Childhood with Joy Davidman and C.S. Lewis''. HarperSanFrancisco, 1994. ISBN 0-06-063447-2
| |
| − | * William Griffin, ''C.S. Lewis: The Authentic Voice''. (Formerly ''C.S. Lewis: A Dramatic Life'') Lion, 2005. ISBN 0-7459-5208-9
| |
| − | * Joel D. Heck, ''Irrigating Deserts: C. S. Lewis on Education''. Concordia Publishing House, 2006. ISBN 0-7586-0044-5
| |
| − | * David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson, eds., ''Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer''. New York and London: T & T Clark / Continuum, 2004. A study of Lewis's close friend the theologian [[Austin Farrer]], this book also contains material on Farrer's circle, "the Oxford Christians," including C. S. Lewis.
| |
| − | * Walter Hooper, ''C. S. Lewis: A Companion and Guide''. HarperCollins, 1996. ISBN 0-00-627800-0
| |
| − | * Walter Hooper, ''Through Joy and Beyond: A Pictorial Biography of C. S. Lewis''. Macmillan, 1982. ISBN 0-02-553670-2
| |
| − | * Alan Jacobs, ''The Narnian: The Life and Imagination of C.S. Lewis''. HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-076690-5
| |
| − | * Carolyn Keefe, ''C.S. Lewis: Speaker & Teacher''. Zondervan, 1979. ISBN 0-310-26781-1
| |
| − | * Clyde S. Kilby, ''The Christian World of C. S. Lewis''. Eerdmans, 1964, 1995. ISBN 0-8028-0871-9
| |
| − | * Kathryn Lindskoog, ''Light in the Shadowlands: Protecting the Real C. S. Lewis''. Multnomah Pub., 1994. ISBN 0-88070-695-3
| |
| − | * W.H. Lewis (ed), ''Letters of C.S. Lewis''. Geoffrey Bles, 1966. ISBN 0-00-242457-6
| |
| − | * Susan Lowenberg, ''C. S. Lewis: A Reference Guide 1972–1988''. Hall & Co., 1993. ISBN 0-8161-1846-9
| |
| − | * Wayne Mardindale & Jerry Root, ''The Quotable Lewis''. Tyndale House Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8423-5115-9
| |
| − | * Markus Mühling, "A Theological Journey into Narnia. An Analysis of the Message beneath the Text", Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3-525-60423-8
| |
| − | * Joseph Pearce, ''C. S. Lewis and the Catholic Church''. Ignatius Press, 2003. ISBN 0-89870-979-2
| |
| − | * Thomas C. Peters, ''Simply C.S. Lewis. A Beginner's Guide to His Life and Works''. Kingsway Publications, 1998. ISBN 0-85476-762-2
| |
| − | * Justin Phillips, ''C.S. Lewis at the BBC: Messages of Hope in the Darkness of War''. Marshall Pickering, 2003. ISBN 0-00-710437-5
| |
| − | * Victor Reppert, ''C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason''. InterVarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8308-2732-3
| |
| − | * [[George Sayer]], ''Jack: C. S. Lewis and His Times''. Macmillan, 1988. ISBN 0-333-43362-9
| |
| − | * Peter J. Schakel, ''Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis: Journeying to Narnia and Other Worlds.'' University of Missouri Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8262-1407-X
| |
| − | * Peter J. Schakel. ''Reason and Imagination in C. S. Lewis: A Study of "Till We Have Faces."'' Available [http://hope.edu/academic/english/schakel/tillwehavefaces/index.html online]. Eerdmans, 1984. ISBN 0-8028-1998-2
| |
| − | * Peter J. Schakel, ed. ''The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C. S. Lewis''. Kent State University Press, 1977. ISBN 0-87338-204-8
| |
| − | * Peter J. Schakel and Charles A. Huttar, ed. ''Word and Story in C. S. Lewis.'' University of Missouri Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8262-0760-X
| |
| − | * Stephen Schofield. ''In Search of C.S. Lewis''. Bridge Logos Pub. 1983. ISBN 0-88270-544-X
| |
| − | * Jeffrey D. Schultz and John G. West, Jr. (eds.), ''The C.S. Lewis Readers' Encyclopedia''. Zondervan Publishing House, 1998. ISBN 0-310-21538-2
| |
| − | * G. B. Tennyson (ed.), ''Owen Barfield on C.S. Lewis''. Wesleyan University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8195-5233-X.
| |
| − | * Richard J. Wagner. ''C.S. Lewis and Narnia for Dummies''. For Dummies, 2005. ISBN 0-7645-8381-6
| |
| − | * Chad Walsh, ''C. S. Lewis: Apostle to the Skeptics''. Macmillan, 1949.
| |
| − | * Chad Walsh, ''The Literary Legacy of C. S. Lewis''. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979. ISBN 0-15-652785-5.
| |
| − | * George Watson (ed.), ''Critical Essays on C. S. Lewis''. Scolar Press, 1992. ISBN 0859678539
| |
| − | * A. N. Wilson, ''C. S. Lewis: A Biography''. W. W. Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-32340-4
| |
| − | * [[Michael White]], ''C.S. Lewis: The Boy Who Chronicled Narnia''. Abacus, 2005. ISBN 0-349-11625-3
| |
| − | </div>
| |
| − | | |
| − | == See also ==
| |
| − | * [[Christian apologetics]] (field of study concerned with the defence of Christianity)
| |
| − | * [[The Inklings]]
| |
| − | * [[Pauline Baynes]]
| |
| − | * [[G. E. M. Anscombe]]
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| − | | |
| − | ==References==
| |
| − | <references/>
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Barker|Given=Dan|Year=1992|Title=Losing Faith in Faith: From Preacher to Atheist|Place=Madison|Publisher=Freedom from Religion Foundation|ID=ISBN 1877733075|URL=http://ffrf.org/books/lfif/?t=assertions}}
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=BBC News|Given=Staff|Authorlink=|Year=2005|Title=Pullman attacks Narnia film plans|Journal=[[BBC News]]|Volume=2005|Issue=16 October|Pages=|URL=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4347226.stm}}
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Dodd|Given=Celia|Year=2004|Title=Human nature: Universally acknowledged|Journal=The Times|Volume=2004|Issue=05-08|URL=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-100-1100513,00.html}}<!--Publication date: 8 May, 2004-->
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Ezard|Given=John|Authorlink=|Year=2002|Title=Narnia books attacked as racist and sexist|Journal=[[The Guardian]]|Volume=2002|Issue=6-3|Pages=|URL=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,726739,00.html}}
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Gopnik|Given=Adam|Authorlink=|Year=2005|Title=PRISONER OF NARNIA How C. S. Lewis escaped|Journal=[[The New Yorker]]|Volume=2005|Issue=11-21|Pages=|URL=http://www.newyorker.com/critics/content/articles/051121crat_atlarge}} <!--First Published: 2005-11-14-->
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Guthmann|Given=Edward|Year=2005|Title='Narnia' tries to cash in on dual audience|Journal=San Francisco Chronicle|Volume=|Issue=|URL=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/12/11/NARNIA.TMP}} <!--Publication date: 11 December, 2005-->
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| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname1=Hooper|Given1=Walter|Authorlink=Walter Hooper|Year=1979|Title=They stand together: The letters of C. S. Lewis to Arthur Greeves (1914-1963)|Place=London|Publisher=Collins|ID= ISBN 0-00-215828-0|URL=}}
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| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Kelly|Given=Clint|Year=2006|Title=Dear Mr. Lewis|Journal=Response|Volume=29|Issue=1|URL=http://www.spu.edu/depts/uc/response/winter2k6/features/lewis.asp}}
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Lewis|Given=C.S.|Year=1952|Title=[[Mere Christianity]]|Place=London|Publisher=Collins|ID=0-00-628054-4|URL=}}
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname1=Martindale|Given1=Wayne|Surname2=Root|Given2=Jerry|Year=1990|Title=The Quotable Lewis|Place=|Publisher=Tyndale House|ID=ISBN 0-8423-5115-9|URL=}}
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Tonkin|Given=Boyd|Authorlink=|Year=2005|Title=CS Lewis: The literary lion of Narnia|Journal=[[The Independent]]|Volume=2005|Issue=11-11|Pages=|URL=http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/books/features/article326179.ece}}
| |
| − | * {{Harvard reference|Surname=Toynbee|Given=Polly|Authorlink=|Year=2005|Title=Narnia represents everything that is most hateful about religion|Journal=[[The Guardian]]|Volume=2005|Issue=December 5|Pages=|URL=http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1657759,00.html}}
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| − | | |
| − | == External links ==
| |
| − | <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
| |
| − | {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-CSLewis.ogg|2005-11-20}}
| |
| − | {{wikiquote}}
| |
| − | * {{gutenberg author| id=C.+S.+Lewis | name=C. S. Lewis}}
| |
| − | * [http://www.cslewis.org/ C.S. Lewis Foundation]
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| − | * [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html The House of C.S. Lewis]
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| − | * [http://www.wheaton.edu/learnres/wade/ Marion E. Wade Center] at [[Wheaton College, Illinois|Wheaton College]] — has the world’s largest collection of Lewis's works and works about him
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| − | * [http://www.taylor.edu/academics/supportServices/csLewis/brown.htm] Taylor University, Upland, Indiana, has the world's largest private collection of C. S. Lewis first editions, letters, manuscripts, and ephemera--the Edwin W. Brown Collection
| |
| − | * [http://www.cslewisfestival.org/ The Northern Michigan C. S. Lewis Festival]
| |
| − | *[http://www.rapidnet.com/~jbeard/bdm/exposes/lewis/cs-lewis.htm RapidNet.com — C. S. Lewis FAQ]
| |
| − | *[http://www.pseudobook.com/cslewis C. S. Lewis & The Inklings] — Bruce Edwards's site, with resources on Lewis and friends
| |
| − | * [http://cslewis.drzeus.net Into the Wardrobe] — a Web site devoted to C. S. Lewis
| |
| − | * [http://www.narniafans.com/ NarniaFans.com] — C.S. Lewis news, database, and community
| |
| − | * [http://www.narniaweb.com/ NarniaWeb.com] — Narnia & C.S. Lewis news, resources, forum
| |
| − | * [http://www.thestonetable.com/ The Stone Table] — the latest C.S. Lewis news, reviews, and community
| |
| − | * [http://www.scriptoriumnovum.com/l.html C.S. Lewis Chronicles] — a compendium of information about Lewis
| |
| − | * [http://www.aslan.demon.co.uk/cslfaq.htm The alt.books.cs-lewis FAQ]
| |
| − | * [http://www.cslewis.com/ C.S. Lewis Classics] — a website by HarperCollins Publishers
| |
| − | * {{isfdb name|id=C._S._Lewis|name=C. S. Lewis}}
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| − | * [http://findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1455 FindAGrave C.S.Lewis]
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| − | * [http://www.malacandra.co.uk Malacandra.co.uk] — a Wiki for C.S. Lewis fans
| |
| − | * [http://www.solcon.nl/arendsmilde/cslewis Arend Smilde's CSL site] — Dutch and (mainly) English. Several unique or hard-to-find texts and resources
| |
| − | * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/features/cslewis/audio.shtml Audio of CS Lewis speaking]
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| − | * [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html The House of C.S. Lewis group]
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| − | * [http://www.filipinonarnians.org The Philippine Order of Narnians] - A Filipino Community of C.S. Lewis Enthusiasts
| |
| − | * {{IBList |type=author|id=349|name=C.S. Lewis}}
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| − | * [http://cslewis.us.to CSLewis.us.to] — a C.S. Lewis Discussion site
| |
| − | </div>
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| − | | |
| − | {{Persondata
| |
| − | |NAME=Lewis, Clive Staples
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| − | |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=C.S. Lewis, CS Lewis, Jack (nickname)
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| − | |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Author & Christian apologist
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| − | |DATE OF BIRTH=[[29 November]] [[1898]]
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| − | |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]]
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| − | |DATE OF DEATH=[[22 November]] [[1963]]
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| − | |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Oxford]], [[England]]
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| − | }}
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| − | | |
| − | [[Category:1898 births|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:1963 deaths|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Northern Irish writers|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Anglican writers|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Mythopoeic writers|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Christian novelists|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Christian apologists|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Converts to Christianity|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:C. S. Lewis| ]]
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| − | [[Category:Former students of University College, Oxford|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:People associated with the University of Oxford|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:People from Belfast|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Northern Irish Anglicans|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Lay theologians|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:People who have declined a British honour|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Northern Irish philosophers|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:British World War I veterans|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Anglo-Irish artists|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | [[Category:Inklings|Lewis, C. S.]]
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| − | | |
| − | [[id:C.S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[be:Клайв Стэйплз Льюіс]]
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| − | [[bs:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[bg:Клайв Стейпълс Луис]]
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| − | [[cs:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[cy:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[da:C.S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[de:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[es:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[eo:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[fa:سی اس لوئیس]]
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| − | [[fr:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[ga:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[gl:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[ko:클라이브 스테이플스 루이스]]
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| − | [[hr:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[is:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[it:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[he:ק.ס. לואיס]]
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| − | [[hu:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[nl:C.S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[ja:C・S・ルイス]]
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| − | [[no:C.S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[nn:C.S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[pl:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[pt:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[ru:Льюис, Клайв Стэйплз]]
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| − | [[sq:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[simple:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[fi:C. S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[sv:C.S. Lewis]]
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| − | [[th:ซี.เอส. ลิวอิส]]
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| − | [[tr:Clive Staples Lewis]]
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| − | [[zh:克利夫·史戴普·路易斯]]
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| | | | |
| | + | {{topics}} |
| | + | * Books |
| | + | ** [[The Chronicles of Narnia]] | [[The Magician's Nephew (book)|The Magician's Nephew]] | [[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (book)|The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]] | [[The Horse and His Boy (book)|The Horse and His Boy]] | [[Prince Caspian (book)|Prince Caspian]] | [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (book)|The Voyage of the Dawn Treader]] | [[The Silver Chair (book)|The Silver Chair]] | [[The Last Battle (book)|The Last Battle]] |
| | + | ** [[Mere Christianity (book)|Mere Christianity]] |
| | + | ** [[The Screwtape Letters (book)|The Screwtape Letters]] |
| | + | ** [[Till We Have Faces]] |
| | | | |
| | {{opinions}} | | {{opinions}} |
