Difference between revisions of "Grace"

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'''Masturbation''' refers to [[sexual]] stimulation, especially of one's own [[sex organ|genitals]] ('''self masturbation''') and often to the point of [[orgasm]]<ref name="webmd">[http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/masturbation-guide Your Guide to Masturbation<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, which is performed manually, by other types of bodily contact (except for [[sexual intercourse]]), by use of objects or tools, or by some combination of these methods.<ref>Based on "masturbation" in ''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition'', Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2003</ref> Masturbation is the most common form of [[autoeroticism]]{{Fact|date=July 2008}}, and the two words are often used as [[synonym]]s, although masturbation with a partner ([[mutual masturbation]]) is also common. [[Non-human animal sexual behavior#Autoeroticism (masturbation)|Animal masturbation]] has been observed in many species, both in the wild and in captivity.<ref>[http://www.petplace.com/horses/breeding-soundness-examination-of-the-stallion/page2.aspx Breeding Soundness Examination of the Stallion]</ref><!--Do not delete this reference.  It is a *named reference* and may be used elsewhere in the article:--><ref name="Bagemihl,1999">Bruce Bagemihl: Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. St. Martin's Press, 1999. ISBN 0-312-19239-8</ref><ref>For further references, see also the main article [[Animal sexuality#Autoeroticism (masturbation)]].</ref>
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{{quote | text={{Bible verse|2 Corinthians|12|9|lang=WEB}}  [[2 Corinthians 12:9]]}}
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{{Infobox_Contents |
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  topic_name = Grace |
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  subtopics = [[Sin]], [[Repentance]], [[Mercy]], [[Forgiveness]], [[Justification]], [[Salvation]], [[Atonement]]
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* [[Irresistible grace]], [[Common grace]], [[Prevenient grace]]
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* {{songs}} - [[Amazing Grace (song)|Amazing Grace]], [[When I Survey the Wonderous Cross (song)|When I Survey the Wonderous Cross]] |
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  opinion_pieces = {{short_opinions}}
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{{ebd}} |
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}}
  
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==Etymology==
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Grace, in Christianity, refers to [[God]]'s [[love]] and [[salvation]] being poured out on people even though they don't deserve this love and favour.
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{{wiktionarypar|masturbation}}
 
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The word '''masturbation''' is believed to derive from either the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''mezea'' (''μεζεα'', "penes") or the [[Latin]] ''manus'' ("hand") and the Latin ''turbare'' ("to disturb").<ref>{{cite book |last = Dally |first = Peter |title = The Fantasy Factor |year = 1975 |pages = 135 |publisher = George Weidenfeld and Nicolson Limited |ISBN = 0-297-76945-6}}</ref> A competing [[etymology]] based on the [[Latin]] ''manu stuprare'' ("to defile with the hand") is said by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] to be an "old conjecture"<ref>OED, s.v. ''masturbation''</ref>.
 
  
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While "masturbation" is the medical term for this practice, many other terms and expressions are in common use. In the vernacular, terms such as "pleasuring oneself", "wanking" and "jerking off" are common. See ''[[wikt:Wikisaurus:masturbate|masturbate]]'' in [[Wiktionary|Wikisaurus]] for many others.
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It is especially seen in God's action to save sinners who cannot rescue themselves, but the biblical idea is broader than forgiveness alone. By grace God calls, forgives, justifies, adopts, transforms, strengthens and sustains his people, and gives them gifts with which to serve others.
  
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== Masturbation techniques ==
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Grace therefore lies near the centre of the biblical account of [[Salvation]]. Humanity turns away from its Creator in [[Sin]], yet God continues to seek, forgive and restore. God's grace is revealed most fully in [[Jesus Christ]], who entered human history as God the Son, died for sinners and rose again so that those who trust in him might be reconciled to God.
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Ways of masturbating common to members of both sexes include pressing or rubbing the [[genital]] area, either with the fingers or against an object such as a [[pillow]]; inserting fingers or an object into the [[anus]] (see [[anal masturbation]]); and stimulating the penis or vulva with electric [[Vibrator (sensual)|vibrator]]s, which may also be inserted into the vagina or anus. Members of both sexes may also enjoy touching, rubbing, or pinching the [[nipple]]s or other [[erogenous zones]] while masturbating. Both sexes sometimes apply [[personal lubricant|lubricating]] substances to intensify sensation.
 
  
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Reading or viewing [[pornography]], or [[sexual fantasy]], are often common adjuncts to masturbation. Often people will call upon memories during masturbation. Masturbation activities are often [[ritualization|ritualised]]. Various [[sexual fetishism|fetishes]] and [[paraphilia]]s can also play a part in the masturbation ritual. Some potentially harmful or fatal activities include [[autoerotic asphyxiation]] and [[self-bondage]].
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The Bible never gives a single dictionary-style definition of grace. Instead, its meaning emerges from the character and actions of God throughout Scripture. Grace is present long before the New Testament begins, but in the New Testament the language of grace becomes particularly prominent, especially in the writings of the [[Apostle Paul]].
  
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Some people get [[sexual pleasure]] by [[urethral play|inserting objects into the urethra]] (the tube through which urine and, in men, semen, flows).<ref name="Alice05">{{cite web |last = |first = "Alice" |title = Go ask Alice!: Cock-stuffing |publisher = Columbia University, New York |date = 2005-02-18 |url = http://www.goaskalice.columbia.edu/3516.html |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref> If these objects are [[Urethral sounding|urethral sounds]], the practice is known as "sounding".<ref name="BME06">{{cite web |last = Various authors |first = |title = Urethral Sound |publisher = Body Modification Ezine |date = 2006-04-21 |url = http://wiki.bmezine.com/index.php/Urethral_Sound |format = html/wiki |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref> Other objects such as ball point pens and thermometers are sometimes used, although this practice can lead to injury and/or infection.<ref name="JAAPA06">{{cite web |last = McPartlin |first = Daniel |coauthors = Adam P. Klausner, MD; Tristan T. Berry, MD |title = Case report: A foreign body in the urethra |publisher = Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants |date = 2005-09-09 |url = http://jaapa.com/issues/j20050901/articles/urethral0905.htm |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref> Some people masturbate by using [[automated erotic stimulation device|machines]] that simulate intercourse.
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== The Biblical Idea ==
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=== Grace in the Old Testament ===
  
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Men and women may masturbate until they are close to orgasm, stop for a while to reduce excitement, and then resume masturbating. They may repeat this cycle multiple times. This "stop and go" build-up can achieve even stronger orgasms. Rarely, people quit stimulation just before orgasm to retain the heightened energy that normally comes down after orgasm<ref>[http://www.csis.hku.hk/~bruce/masturb1.html Masturbation, Tantra and Self-love<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Doing this could lead to temporary discomfort due to [[pelvic congestion]].
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The Old Testament consistently shows God as gracious, merciful and faithful. Grace was present from the beginning of God's dealings with humanity. God's preservation of Noah, his calling of Abraham, his rescue of Israel from Egypt, his covenant with Israel, his patience with a rebellious people and his repeated willingness to forgive all display divine grace.
  
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Austrian psychoanalyst [[Wilhelm Reich]] in his 1922 essay ''[[Concerning Specific Forms of Masturbation]]'' tried to identify healthy and unhealthy forms of masturbation. He tried to relate the way people masturbated to their degree of inclination towards the opposite sex and to their psycho-sexual pathologies.
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The principal Hebrew noun corresponding to the idea of favour or grace is [[Hebrew:2580|חֵן]] (ḥen). It commonly describes favourable regard freely shown by one person towards another and, importantly, by God towards human beings. It often occurs in the expression "to find favour in the eyes of" someone. The related verb [[Hebrew:2603|חָנַן]] (ḥanan) means to show favour, be gracious or have compassion.
  
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=== Female ===
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The first major biblical example occurs with Noah in [[Genesis 6:8]]: Noah "found favour" (ḥen) in the eyes of Yahweh.
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Female masturbation techniques include a woman stroking or rubbing her [[vulva]], especially her [[clitoris]], with her [[index finger|index]] and/or [[middle finger]]s. Sometimes one or more fingers may be inserted into the vagina to repeatedly stroke its frontal wall where the [[Gräfenberg spot|g-spot]] is located.<ref name="Keesling99">{{cite web |last = Keesling |first = Barbara |title = Beyond Orgasmatron |publisher = Psychology Today |date = November/December 99 (Last Reviewed: 30 August 2004) |url = http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/index.php?term=pto-19991101-000038&page=2 |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref>
 
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Masturbation aids such as a [[Vibrator (sensual)|vibrator]], [[dildo]] or [[Ben Wa balls]] can also be used to stimulate the vagina and clitoris. Many women caress their breasts or stimulate a [[nipple]] with the free hand, if these are receptive areas for sexual stimulation. Anal stimulation is also enjoyed by some. [[Personal lubricant|Lubrication]] is sometimes used during masturbation, especially when [[Sexual penetration|penetration]] is involved, but this is not universal and many women find their [[Vaginal lubrication|natural lubrication]] sufficient.
 
  
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Common positions include lying on back or face down, sitting, squatting, kneeling or standing. In a bath or shower a female may direct tap water at her clitoris and vulva. Lying face down one may use the hands, one may straddle a pillow, the corner or edge of the bed, a partner's leg or some scrunched-up clothing and "[[dry hump|hump]]" the [[vulva]] and [[clitoris]] against it. Standing up a chair, the corner of an item of furniture or even a washing machine can be used to stimulate the clitoris through the labia and clothing.  
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The Greek Septuagint translated the Hebrew expression with [[Greek:5485|χάρις]] (charis), the same Greek noun that later becomes the principal New Testament word for grace.
  
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In the 1920s, [[Havelock Ellis]] reported that turn-of-the-century seamstresses using treadle-operated sewing machines could achieve orgasm by sitting near the edge of their chairs.<ref>Ellis, Havelock (1927), Studies in the Psychology of Sex (3rd edition), Volume I,; Auto-Erotism: A Study of the Spontaneous Manifestations of the Sexual Impulse; section I; "The Sewing-machine and the Bicycle:" quotes one Pouillet as saying "it is a well-recognized fact that to work a sewing-machine with the body in a certain position produces sexual excitement leading to the orgasm. The occurrence of the orgasm is indicated to the observer by the machine being worked for a few seconds with uncontrollable rapidity. This sound is said to be frequently heard in large French workrooms, and it is part of the duty of the superintendents of the rooms to make the girls sit properly." {{gutenberg|no=13610|name=Studies in the Psychology of Sex, v. I, by Havelock Ellis}}</ref>
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The language becomes particularly important in Moses' relationship with Yahweh. In [[Exodus 33]]:12-17 Moses repeatedly speaks of having found favour in God's sight. Moses' experience of grace leads immediately into one of the Old Testament's most important declarations about the character of God in [[Exodus 34]]:6-7 where Yahweh reveals himself as compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness. Grace is therefore rooted in who God is. God does gracious things because God is gracious.
  
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Women can sexually stimulate themselves by crossing their legs tightly and clenching the muscles in their legs, creating pressure on the genitals. This can potentially be done in public without observers noticing. Some masturbate using only pressure applied to the clitoris without direct contact, for example by pressing the palm or ball of the hand against underwear or other clothing.  
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Another important Hebrew word is [[Hebrew:2617|חֶסֶד]] (ḥesed). It is often translated "steadfast love", "loving kindness", "loyal love", "mercy" or "faithfulness". Older Christian writing sometimes treated ḥesed almost as if it were simply the Old Testament word for "grace", but this is too narrow. Ḥesed particularly carries the idea of faithful, enduring and relational love, often in a covenant setting. It overlaps strongly with grace without being identical to ḥēn. In the Septuagint it is commonly translated with [[Greek:1656|ἔλεος]] (eleos), "mercy", rather than charis.
  
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Thoughts, fantasies, and memories of previous instances of arousal and orgasm can produce sexual excitation. Some women can orgasm spontaneously by force of will alone, although this may not strictly qualify as masturbation as no physical stimulus is involved.<ref name="Koedt70">{{cite web |last = Koedt |first = Anne |title = The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm |publisher = Chicago Women's Liberation Union |date = 1970 |url = http://www.cwluherstory.org/classic-feminist-writings/myth-of-the-vaginal-orgasm.html |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref><ref name=kins>The Kinsey Institute [http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/research/ak-data.html#masturbation Data from Alfred Kinsey's studies]. Published online.</ref>
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Together these words reveal complementary aspects of God's character. Ḥen emphasises favour graciously given; ḥesed emphasises God's steadfast and faithful love.
  
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Sex therapists will sometimes recommend that female patients take time to masturbate to orgasm, especially if they have not done so before.<ref name="Shuman06">{{cite web |last = Shuman |first = Tracy |title = Your Guide to Masturbation |publisher = WebMD, Inc./The Cleveland Clinic Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology |date = 2006-02 |url = http://www.webmd.com/content/article/45/2953_487.htm |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref><ref name="Knowles02">{{cite web |last = Knowles |first = Jon |title = Masturbation — From Stigma to Sexual Health |publisher = Katharine Dexter McCormick Library/Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc. |date = 2002-11 |url = http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/politics-policy-issues/medical-sexual-health/masturbation-6360.htm |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref>
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This is important when reading [[John 1]]:14-17. John's description of Jesus as "full of grace and truth" probably echoes Yahweh's revelation to Moses in [[Exodus 34:6]], where God is abundant in steadfast love and faithfulness. John therefore presents Jesus not as introducing a previously unknown gracious God, but as the supreme revelation of the gracious character God had already revealed.
  
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=== Male ===
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Other important Old Testament passages include [[Psalm 84:11]], where God gives grace or favour and glory; [[Proverbs 3:34]], where God gives grace to the humble; and [[Zechariah 12:10]], which speaks of a "spirit of grace" or supplication.
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[[Image:Masturbating man2.JPG|thumb|right|A man masturbating]]
 
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Male masturbation techniques are also influenced by a number of factors and personal preferences. Techniques may also differ between [[circumcision|circumcised]] and [[foreskin|uncircumcised]] males, as some techniques which may work for one can be quite painful for the other.  
 
  
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The most common male masturbation technique is simply to hold the [[penis]] with a loose fist and then to move the hand up and down the shaft until [[orgasm]] and [[ejaculation]] take place. The speed of the hand motion will vary from person to person, although it is not uncommon for the speed to increase as ejaculation nears and for it to decrease during the ejaculation itself. When uncircumcised, stimulation of the penis in this way comes from the "pumping" of the [[foreskin]]. This [[Gliding action#Function of gliding action|gliding motion]] of the foreskin reduces friction. When circumcised, there is more direct contact between the hand and the glans, thus a [[personal lubricant]] is sometimes used to reduce friction. Sometimes, if too much pressure is applied, it may be rubbed sore for a time.
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=== Grace in the New Testament ===
  
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Circumcised or not, men may rub or massage the [[Glans penis|glans]], the rim of the glans, and the [[frenular delta]].  
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The principal New Testament word translated grace is the Greek noun χάρις (charis). It occurs about 155 times in the New Testament. Its range of meaning includes favour, kindness, graciousness, benefit, gratitude and, particularly in Christian usage, God's freely bestowed favour. It does not simply mean "gift", although the ideas are closely connected. The related noun [[Greek:5486|χάρισμα]] (charisma) means a gracious or freely given gift, while [[Greek:5483|χαρίζομαι]] (charizomai) can mean to grant something freely or to forgive a debt or offence.
  
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Another technique is to place just the index finger and thumb around the penis about halfway along the penis and move the skin up and down. A variation on this is to place the fingers and thumb on the penis as if playing a flute, and then shuttle them back and forth. Another common technique is to lie face down on a comfortable surface such as a mattress or pillow and rub the penis against it until orgasm is achieved. This technique may include the use of a [[simulacrum]], or artificial vagina.
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This word-family helps explain the New Testament understanding of grace. Grace is not simply an emotion within God. It produces gifts and actions. What God graciously wills, he graciously gives.
  
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There are many other variations on male masturbation techniques. Some men place both hands directly on their penis during masturbation, while others use their free hand to [[fondle]] their [[testicles]], [[nipples]], or other parts of their body. Some may keep their hand stationary while pumping into it with pelvic thrusts in order to simulate the motions of [[sexual intercourse]]. Others may also use vibrators and other sexual devices more commonly associated with female masturbation. A few extremely flexible males can reach and stimulate their penis with their tongue or lips, and so perform [[autofellatio]].
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==== Grace in Jesus Christ ====
  
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The [[prostate]] gland is one of the organs that contributes fluid to [[semen]]. As the prostate is touch-sensitive, some directly stimulate it using a well-lubricated finger or [[dildo]] inserted through the [[anus]] into the [[rectum]]. Stimulating the prostate from outside, via pressure on the [[perineum]], can be pleasurable as well. Some men, also, enjoy [[anal sex|anal]] stimulation, with fingers or otherwise, without any prostate stimulation.
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Although charis is not especially frequent in the Synoptic Gospels, the reality of grace permeates the ministry of Jesus.
  
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Semen is sometimes ejaculated onto a [[facial tissue|tissue]] or some other item.
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Jesus welcomed sinners, touched people regarded as unclean, healed those who could not repay him and ate with people despised by respectable society. His parables repeatedly portrayed the generosity of God towards people who had no claim upon him.
  
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A somewhat controversial ejaculation control technique is to put pressure on the [[perineum]], about halfway between the [[scrotum]] and the [[anus]], just before ejaculating. This can, however, redirect semen into the bladder (referred to as [[retrograde ejaculation]]). If repeated on a regular basis, this technique could cause long term damage due to the pressure put on the nerves and blood vessels in the perineum.
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The Parable of the Prodigal Son in [[Luke 15]]:11-32 is among the clearest pictures of this. The returning son could offer no restoration of everything he had squandered. He intended to ask merely for the position of a servant, yet the father received him as a son. The initiative, welcome and restoration flowed from the father's love.
  
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== Mutual masturbation ==
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The parable of the workers in the vineyard in [[Matthew 20]]:1-16 similarly portrays a master whose generosity exceeds calculations of what individual workers deserve.
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[[Image:Geiger-masturbation-mutuelle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Johann Nepomuk]], [[watercolor]], 1840.]]
 
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{{Main|Mutual masturbation}}
 
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''Mutual masturbation'' is a [[sexual act]] where two or more people stimulate themselves or one another sexually, usually with the hands.  
 
  
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It is part of a full repertoire of sexual intercourse, where it may be used as an interlude, [[foreplay]] or as an alternative to penetration. For some people, [[non-penetrative sex]] or frottage is the primary sexual activity of choice above all others. Participants who do not want full sexual intercourse thus still enjoy a mutual sexual act.
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Yet the fullest expression of grace is not one particular saying of Jesus. It is Jesus himself. [[John 1]]:14-17 describes the incarnate Word as full of grace and truth and declares that from his fullness believers receive "grace upon grace". The passage reaches its climax by contrasting Moses' role in giving the law with the arrival of grace and truth through Jesus Christ. This should not be read as if Moses represented an age devoid of grace. Rather, God's grace reaches its decisive revelation and fulfilment in Christ.
  
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Mutual masturbation is practiced by people of all [[sexual orientation]]s. If used as an alternative to penile-vaginal penetration, the aim may be to preserve [[virgin]]ity or to prevent pregnancy. Some people choose it as it achieves sexual satisfaction without actual sex, possibly seeing it as an alternative to [[casual sex]].
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==== Grace and the Cross ====
  
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== Masturbation frequency, age and sex ==
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The New Testament particularly connects grace with the death and resurrection of Jesus.
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Frequency of masturbation is determined by many factors, e.g., one's resistance to [[sexual tension]], [[hormone]] levels influencing [[sexual arousal]], sexual habits, peer influences, health and one's attitude to masturbation formed by culture.<ref> E. Heiby and J. Becker examined the latter. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7396686&query_hl=21&itool=pubmed_docsum]</ref> Medical causes have also been associated with masturbation.<ref>"Bladder calculus presenting as excessive masturbation." ''Ceylon Med. J.'' 2006 Sept., 51(3):121-2.</ref><ref>"Excessive masturbation after epilepsy surgery." ''Epilepsy Behav.'' 2004 Feb., 5(1):133-6.</ref><ref>"Severe impulsiveness as the primary manifestation of multiple sclerosis in a young female." ''Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.'' 2005 Dec., 59(6):739-42.</ref>
 
  
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Different studies have found that masturbation is frequent in humans. [[Alfred Kinsey|Alfred Kinsey's]] studies have shown that 92% of men and 62% of women have masturbated during their lifespan.<ref name=kins/> Similar results have been found in a British national probability survey. It was found that 95% of men and 71% of women masturbated at some point in their lives. 73% of men and 37% of women reported masturbating in the four weeks before their interview, while 53% of men and 18% of women reported masturbating in the previous seven days.<ref name=gerr>Gerressu, M., Mercer, C.H., Graham, C.A., Wellings, K. and Johnson, A.M. (2007). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=17333329 Prevalence of Masturbation and Associated Factors in a British National Probability Survey]. ''Archives of Sexual Behavior'', Published online.</ref>
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[[Romans 3]]:23-26 brings together the problem of sin, the free nature of justification and the redemptive work of Christ. All have sinned and fall short of God's glory, yet believers are justified freely by God's grace through the redemption accomplished in Christ ([[Romans 5:8]]).
  
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"Forty-eight female college students were asked to complete a sexual attitudes questionnaire in which a frequency of masturbation scale was embedded. Twenty-four of the women (the experimental group) then individually viewed an explicit modeling film involving female masturbation. One month later, all subjects again completed the same questionnaire. Subjects in the experimental group also completed a questionnaire evaluating aspects of the film. Results indicated that the experimental group reported a significant increase in the average monthly frequency of masturbation, as compared to the control group. This same group, however, reported that the film had no effect on sexual attitudes or behavior."
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The striking feature of this grace is its direction. Christ did not die for humanity once humanity had made itself worthy of him. God acted while people were still sinners.
  
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A 2004 survey by [[Toronto]] magazine [[NOW (magazine)|''NOW'']] was answered by an unspecified number of thousands.<ref>[http://www.nowtoronto.com/minisites/loveandsex/2004/s_survey_results.php NOW's Love and Sex Guide 2004]</ref> The results show that an overwhelming majority of the males – 81% – began masturbating between the ages of 10 and 15. Among females, the same figure was a more modest majority of 55%. (Note that surveys on sexual practices are prone to ''self-[[selection bias]]''.) It is not uncommon however to begin much earlier, and this is more frequent among females: 18% had begun by the time they turned 10, and 6% already by the time they turned 6. Being the main outlet of [[child sexuality]], masturbation has been observed in very young children. In the book ''Human Sexuality: Diversity in Contemporary America'', by Strong, Devault and Sayad, the authors point out, "A baby boy may laugh in his crib while playing with his erect penis (although he does not ejaculate). Baby girls sometimes move their bodies rhythmically, almost violently, appearing to experience [[orgasm]]."
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Paul develops this contrast throughout [[Romans 5]]. Adam's trespass brought condemnation and death; God's gracious gift in Jesus Christ abounds beyond the trespass. Grace is God's answer to human sin, but it does not pretend that sin is insignificant. The cross reveals both the seriousness of sin and the abundance of grace.
  
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The ''NOW'' magazine survey has it that the frequency of masturbation declines after the age of 17. Many males masturbate daily, or even more frequently, well into their 20s and sometimes far beyond. This decline is more drastic among females, and more gradual among males. While females aged 13–17 masturbated almost once a day on average (and almost as often as their male peers), adult women only masturbated 8–9 times a month, compared to the 18–22 among men. Adolescent youths report being able to masturbate to ejaculation around six times per day, though some men in older middle age report being hard pressed to ejaculate even once per day. On the other hand healthy 21-28 year old males are able to masturbate at least 8-10 times per day if they are not stressed. The survey does not give a full demographic breakdown of respondents, however, and the sexual history of respondents to this poll, who are readers of an urban Toronto lifestyle magazine, may not extend to the general population.
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==== Saved by grace ====
  
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It appears that females are less likely to masturbate while in a [[heterosexual]] relationship than men. Popular belief asserts that individuals of either sex who are not in sexually active relationships tend to masturbate more frequently than those who are; however, much of the time this is not true as masturbation alone or with a partner is often a feature of a relationship. Contrary to conventional wisdom, several studies actually reveal a positive correlation between the frequency of masturbation and the frequency of intercourse. One study reported a significantly higher rate of masturbation in gay men and women who were in a relationship.<ref>Heilborn, M.L. and Cabral, C.S. (2006). [http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-311X2006000700011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Sexual practices in youth: analysis of lifetime sexual trajectory and last sexual intercourse]. ''Cad Saude Publica, 22, 7,'' pp. 1471-81. Epub 2006 Jun 14.</ref><ref name=gerr/><ref>Menon, A., McAllister, R.H., Watson, W. and Watson, S. (2006). [http://jop.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/1/125 Increased libido associated with quetiapine]. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology, 20, 1,'' pp. 125-7.</ref><ref>Sexual behavior in lesbian and heterosexual women: relations with menstrual cycle phase and partner availability. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2002 May;27(4):489-503.</ref>
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One of the clearest summaries of salvation by grace occurs in [[Ephesians 2]]:1-10. Human beings are first described as spiritually dead in trespasses and sins. God then makes them alive together with Christ.  
  
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Among some cultures, such as the [[Hopi]] in [[Arizona]], the [[Wogeno]] in [[Oceania]], and the [[Dahomeans]] and [[Namu]] of Africa, masturbation is encouraged, including regular masturbation between males. In certain [[Melanesian]] communities this is expected between older and younger boys. One interesting twist is the [[Sambia]] tribe of [[New Guinea]]. This tribe has rituals and rites of passage surrounding manhood which involve frequent ejaculation through [[fellatio]]. Semen is valued and masturbation is seen as a waste of semen and is therefore frowned upon even though frequent ejaculation is encouraged. The capacity and need to ejaculate is nurtured for years from an early age through fellatio so that it can be consumed rather than wasted. Semen is ingested for strength and is considered in the same line as mothers' milk.<ref>[http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joepages/The%20Sambia.htm The Sambia]</ref>
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Salvation is by grace, through faith, and is not the achievement of human works. Consequently there is no ground for boasting. Yet Paul immediately adds that those who are saved are created in Christ Jesus for good works.
  
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Other cultures have rites of passage into manhood that culminate in the first ejaculation of a male, usually by the hands of a tribal elder. In some tribes such as the Agta, Philippines, stimulation of the genitals is encouraged from an early age.<ref>Cited by Hewlett, B. S. (1996) Diverse contexts of human infancy, in Ember, C. & Ember, M. (Eds.) Cross-Cultural Research for Social Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall</ref> Upon puberty, the young male is then paired off with a "wise elder" or "witch doctor" who uses masturbation to build his ability to ejaculate in preparation for a ceremony. The ceremony culminates in a public ejaculation before a celebration. The ejaculate is saved in a wad of animal skin and worn later to help conceive children. In this and other tribes, the measure of manhood is actually associated more with the amount of ejaculate and his need than penis size. Frequent ejaculation through masturbation from an early age fosters frequent ejaculation well into adulthood.<ref>The clinical outcome of childhood masturbation. Turk J Pediatr. 2000 Oct-Dec;42(4):304-7.</ref>
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Grace and good works therefore stand in a particular relationship. Works do not purchase grace; grace produces a changed life in which good works follow.
  
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Masturbation is becoming accepted as a healthy practice and safe method for sharing pleasure without some of the dangers that can accompany intercourse. It is socially accepted and even celebrated in certain circles. Group masturbation events can be easily found online. [[Masturbate-a-thon|Masturbation marathons]] are yearly events and are occurring across the globe. These events provide a supportive environment where masturbation can be performed openly among young and old without embarrassment. Participants talk openly with onlookers while masturbating to share techniques and describe their pleasure.<ref>[http://www.masturbate-a-thon.com Masturbate-a-thon by The Center For Sex & Culture]</ref><ref>[http://www.viewlondon.co.uk/masturbation-marathon-london_index.html viewlondon.co.uk article on Masturbation Marathon London]</ref>
+
Paul makes the same point autobiographically in [[1 Corinthians 15:10]]. Paul attributes both what he had become and the work he subsequently performed to the grace of God. Grace did not make him passive. It produced labour, obedience and ministry.
  
−
== Evolutionary utility ==
+
==== Grace as power and help ====
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Masturbation may increase fertility during intercourse.
 
  
−
Female masturbation alters conditions in the vagina, cervix and uterus, in ways that can alter the chances of conception from intercourse, depending on the timing of the masturbation. A woman's orgasm between one minute before and up to 45 minutes after insemination favors the chances of that sperm reaching her egg. If, for example, she has had intercourse with more than one male, such an orgasm can increase the likelihood of a pregnancy by one of them.<ref>{{cite book |last = Baker |first = Robin |title = Sperm Wars: The Science of Sex |publisher = Diane Books Publishing Company |date=June 1996 |isbn = 978-0788160042}}</ref><ref name=Ejaculate_manipulation_by_females>{{cite journal |last = Baker |first = Robin R. |coauthors = Bellis, Mark A. |year = 1993 |month = Nov |title = Human sperm competition: Ejaculate manipulation by females and a function for the female orgasm. |journal = Animal Behaviour |volume = 46 |issue = 5 |pages = p887, 23p |url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3768816}}</ref> Female masturbation can also provide protection against cervical infections by increasing the acidity of the cervical mucus and by moving debris out of the cervix.<ref name=Ejaculate_manipulation_by_females/>
+
Grace in the New Testament is more than God's decision not to punish. When Paul pleaded for the removal of his "thorn in the flesh", Christ answered that his grace was sufficient because divine power was made perfect in weakness ([[2 Corinthians 12]]:8-10). Here grace is sustaining power.  
  
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In males, masturbation flushes out old sperm with low motility from the male's genital tract. The next ejaculate then contains more fresh sperm, which have higher chances of achieving conception during intercourse. If more than one male has intercourse with a female, the sperm with the highest motility will [[Sperm competition|compete]] more effectively.<ref>{{cite paper |author = Thomsen, Ruth |title = Sperm Competition and the Function of Masturbation in Japanese Macaques |publisher = Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München |date=October 2000 |url = http://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/archive/00000105/}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last = Baker |first = Robin R. |coauthors = Bellis, Mark A. |year = 1993 |month = Nov |title = Human sperm competition: Ejaculate adjustment by males and the function of masturbation. |journal = Animal Behaviour |volume = 46 |issue = 5 |pages = p861, 25p |url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3768815}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last = Shackelford |first = Todd K. |coauthors = Goetz, Aaron T. |year = 2007 |month = Feb |title = Adaptation to Sperm Competition in Humans. |journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume = 16 |issue = 1 |pages = p47-50 |url = http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00473.x}}</ref>
+
Likewise, the writer of Hebrews tells believers to approach God's throne of grace confidently so that they may receive mercy and find grace for help when needed ([[Hebrews 4:16]]).
  
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==Health and psychological effects==
+
Grace is something upon which Christians continue to depend after conversion.
−
=== Benefits ===
 
−
The physical benefits of masturbation and having an orgasm or ejaculating creates heightened arousal while [[epinephrine]] courses through the body, producing the flushed face, shallow breath and post-climactic [[Euphoria (emotion)|euphoria]].<ref>{{Citation |title = Masturbation key to healthy, functional sexual relationships |date = [[April 19]] |year = 2007 |url = http://badgerherald.com/oped/2007/04/19/masturbation_key_to_.php |accessdate = July 2007}}</ref> It is held in many mental health circles that masturbation can relieve [[clinical depression|depression]]{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, stress and lead to a higher sense of [[Self-esteem|self-worth]] (Hurlbert & Whittaker, 1991). Masturbation can also be particularly useful in relationships where one partner wants more sex than the other – in which case masturbation provides a balancing effect and thus a more harmonious relationship.<ref>{{Citation |title = Masturbation key to healthy, functional sexual relationships |date = [[April 19]] |year = 2007 |url = http://badgerherald.com/oped/2007/04/19/masturbation_key_to_.php |accessdate = July 2007}} However, the alleged benefits of masturbation must be qualified with the acknowledgment that the practice is just as likely to exacerbate feelings of loneliness. </ref>
 
  
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[[Mutual masturbation]], the act by which two or more partners stimulate themselves in the presence of each other, allows a couple to reveal the "map to [their] pleasure centers". Witnessing a partner masturbate is an educational activity to find out the method a partner pleases him- or herself, allowing each partner to learn exactly how the other enjoys being touched.<ref>{{Citation |title = Masturbation key to healthy, functional sexual relationships |date = [[April 19]] |year = 2007 |url = http://badgerherald.com/oped/2007/04/19/masturbation_key_to_.php |accessdate = September 2007}}</ref>
+
==== Grace transforms ====
  
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In 2003, an Australian research team led by Graham Giles of [[The Cancer Council Australia]]<ref>[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1464-410X.2003.04319.x/abs/ Sexual factors and prostate cancer]</ref> concluded that frequent masturbation by males appears to help prevent the development of [[prostate cancer]]. The study also indicated that this would be more helpful than ejaculation through sexual intercourse because intercourse can transmit diseases that may increase the [[Cervical cancer#Causes|risk of cancer]] instead. Also, frequent ejaculation is more easily obtained and sustained over time with the aid of masturbation.
+
Grace is sometimes caricatured as God overlooking wrongdoing. The New Testament instead describes grace as an enemy of sin.
  
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A study published in 1997 found an inverse association between death from coronary heart disease and frequency of orgasm even given the risk that myocardial ischaemia and myocardial infarction can be triggered by sexual activity. Excerpt, "The association between frequency or orgasm and all cause mortality was also examined using the midpoint of each response category recoded as number of orgasms per year. The age adjusted odds ratio for an increase of 100 orgasms per year was 0.64 (0.44 to 0.95)." That is, a difference between any two subjects appeared when one subject ejaculated at around two or more more times per week than the other. Assuming a broad range average of between 3 to 5 ejaculations per week for healthy males, this would mean 5 to 7 ejaculations per week. This is consistent with a 2003 Australia article on the benefits against prostate cancer.<ref>{{Citation
+
[[Titus 2]]:11-14 explains that the grace of God has appeared bringing salvation and training believers to reject ungodliness and worldly desires and to live godly lives.
−
| title = Sex and death: are they related? Findings from the Caerphilly cohort study
 
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| date = December 20
 
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| year = 1997
 
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| url = http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/315/7123/1641
 
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| accessdate = July 2007 }}</ref>
 
  
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Masturbation is also seen as a sexual technique that protects individuals from the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. Support for such a view, and for making it part of the American sex education curriculum, led to the dismissal of US Surgeon General [[Joycelyn Elders]] during the Clinton administration.
+
Paul similarly asks whether Christians should continue sinning so that grace might increase in [[Romans 6]]:1-2. His answer is emphatically negative.
  
−
Sexual climax, from masturbation or otherwise, leaves one in a relaxed and contented state. This is frequently followed closely by drowsiness and sleep – particularly when one masturbates in bed.
+
Grace forgives sinners, but its purpose is not to leave them unchanged. The grace that justifies also begins a life of [[Sanctification]].
  
−
Some professionals consider masturbation to function as a cardiovascular workout.<ref>{{cite journal | coauthors = Benjamin Graber, Scott Balogh, Denis Fitzpatrick and Shelton Hendricks
+
==== Gifts of grace ====
−
| title = Cardiovascular changes associated with sexual arousal and orgasm in men
 
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| journal = Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment
 
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| volume = 4
 
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| issue = 2
 
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| pages = 151-165
 
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| publisher = Springer Netherlands
 
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| date = June, 1991
 
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| url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/m28k5475630n5872/
 
−
| doi = 10.1007/BF00851611
 
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| id = 1079-0632 (Print) 1573-286X (Online)
 
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| accessdate = 2004-12-28 }}</ref> Though research is still as yet scant, those suffering from cardiovascular disorders (particularly those recovering from myocardial infarction, or heart attacks) should resume physical activity (including sexual intercourse and masturbation) gradually and with the frequency and rigor which their physical status will allow. This limitation can serve as encouragement to follow through with physical therapy sessions to help improve endurance.
 
  
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=== Blood pressure ===
+
The relationship between charis and charisma is particularly evident in Paul's teaching about spiritual gifts in  
−
Both sex and masturbation lower blood pressure. A small study has shown that in one test group, recent full intercourse resulted in the lowest average blood pressure in stressful situations. Masturbation then led to lower blood pressure than did no recent sexual activity.<ref>Brody, Stuart. "Blood pressure reactivity to stress is better for people who recently had penile-vaginal intercourse than for people who had other or no sexual activity." ''Biological Psychology'', Volume 71, Issue 2, February 2006, pages 214-222.</ref>
+
[[Romans 12]]:3-8 [[1 Corinthians 12]]:4-11.
  
−
=== Insertion ===
+
Different Christians receive different gifts "according to the grace given" to them. Ministry itself is therefore an expression of grace. A Christian cannot finally boast about his or her abilities, because whatever is genuinely used for God's kingdom has first been received.
−
Objects inserted into the vagina, anus/rectum or urethra should be clean and of a kind that will not scratch or break. Care should be taken not to fully insert anything into the anus – any object used should have a flared or flanged base; otherwise retrieval can require medical intervention. Modern [[dildo]]s and [[Butt plug|anal plugs]] are designed with this feature.
 
  
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=== Pregnancy ===
+
==== Past, present and future grace ====
−
Masturbation involving both a man and a woman (see ''[[Non-penetrative sex#Mutual masturbation|mutual masturbation]]'') can result in pregnancy only if [[semen]] contacts the [[vulva]]. Masturbation with a partner can also theoretically result in transmission of sexually transmitted diseases by contact with bodily fluids.
 
  
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=== Problems for males ===
+
The New Testament can speak of grace in past, present and future terms.
−
A man whose penis has suffered a blunt trauma or injury during intercourse may rarely sustain a [[penile fracture]]<ref>[http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3415.htm eMedicine article on Penile Fracture and Trauma]</ref> or suffer from [[Peyronie's disease]].<ref>[http://www.aafp.org/afp/990800ap/549.html American Academy of Family Physicians article on Peyronie's Disease: Current Management]</ref> [[Phimosis]] is "a contracted foreskin (that) may cause trouble by hurting when an attempt is made to pull the foreskin back".<ref>[http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/facts/phimosis.htm netdoctor.co.uk article on Foreskin contraction (phimosis)]</ref> In these cases, any energetic manipulation of the penis can be problematic.
 
  
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=== Compulsive masturbation ===
+
Believers have been saved by grace ([[Ephesians 2:8]]).
−
[[Sigmund Freud]] argued that every normal child usually experiments with many types of [[autoerotic]] sexual stimulation. Social repressions of sexuality reached their peak in the [[Victorian era]] when popular authors wrote books threatening young children with [[mental deficiency]] or [[insanity]] if they indulged in any form of masturbation. Actually there is no scientific evidence of any causative relationship between autoeroticism and any form of mental disorder. Though mentally disturbed persons characteristically show poor judgment in expressing sexuality, this may be understood as a symptom rather than a cause.
 
−
Each child however, must learn the appropriate social and legal limitations relating to expressing sexuality.
 
−
Masturbating frequently presents no physical, mental or emotional risk in itself,<ref>[http://www.vpul.upenn.edu/ohe/library/Sexhealth/articles/masturbating.htm University of Pennsylvania Office of Health Education article on masturbation]</ref> but masturbation can be used to relieve boredom or stress. In either case, as with any "nervous habit", it is more helpful to consider the causes of the boredom or of the stress, rather than try to repress the masturbation.<ref>[http://www.chmed.com/mod.php?mod=userpage&menu=1907&page_id=142&PHPSESSID=a76dc0f6fb1882506f5666b63fb98062 Childrens Medical Office of North Andover, P.C. article on Masturbation in Early Childhood]</ref>
 
  
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There is some discussion between professionals and other interested parties as to the existence or validity of [[sexual addiction]]s. Nevertheless, there are lists of warning signs such as when sexual activity affects a person's ability to function in everyday life, or is placing them at risk, for example, of pursuing illegal or destructive activities. Very frequent and compulsive masturbation may be seen as a sign of sexual addiction.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/relationships/sex_and_sexual_health/probs_sexaddiction.shtml BBC Relationships: Addicted to sex]</ref>
+
Believers presently stand in grace ([[Romans 5:2]]), receive grace for weakness ([[2 Corinthians 12:9]]) and approach the throne of grace ([[Hebrews 4:16]]).
  
−
== Masturbation in history and society ==
+
Peter also tells Christians to set their hope completely upon the grace that will be brought to them at the revelation of Jesus Christ ([[1 Peter 1:13]]).
−
=== Antiquity ===
 
  
−
There are depictions of male masturbation in prehistoric [[rock painting]]s around the world. Most early people seem to have connected human sexuality with abundance in nature. A clay figurine of the 4th millennium BC from a temple site on the island of [[Malta]], depicts a woman masturbating.<ref>"The [[Ħaġar Qim]] woman is... masturbating, with one hand languidly supporting her head. " Taylor, Timothy. ''Uncovering the prehistory of sex'', British Archaeology, no 15, June 1996: [http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba15/ba15feat.html].</ref> However, in the ancient world depictions of male masturbation are far more common.
+
Grace therefore encompasses the whole Christian journey, from God's initiative in calling a sinner to the final salvation that will be revealed when Christ returns.
  
−
From the earliest records, ancient [[Sumer]] had a relaxed attitude toward sex, and masturbation was a popular technique for enhancing potency, either alone or with a partner.<ref>Dening, Sarah.  ''The Mythology of Sex''. Macmillian 1996, ISBN 978 0028612072</ref><ref>Dening, Sarah, ''The Mythology of Sex'' [http://www.ishtartemple.org/myth.htm Chapter 3]</ref>
+
== Grace through Church History ==
 +
=== The Early Church ===
  
−
Male masturbation became an even more important image in [[ancient Egypt]]: when performed by a god it could be considered a creative or magical act: the god [[Atum]] was believed to have created the universe by masturbating to ejaculation, and the ebb and flow of the [[Nile]] was attributed to the frequency of his ejaculations. Egyptian [[pharoahs]], in response to this, were at one time required to masturbate ceremonially into the Nile.<ref> Johnathan Margolis, "O: The intimate history of the orgasm", 2003. p134</ref>
+
Grace remained central to Christian teaching immediately after the apostolic period.
  
−
The ancient [[Greeks]] had a more relaxed attitude toward masturbation than the Egyptians did, regarding the act as a normal and healthy substitute for other forms of sexual pleasure. They considered it a safety valve against destructive sexual frustration. The Greeks also dealt with female masturbation in both their art and writings. One common term used for it was ''anaphlan,'' which roughly translates as "up-fire".
+
Around the end of the first century, [[1 Clement]] told the Corinthian Christians that believers were called by God's will in Christ and were not justified by themselves, their wisdom, piety or works, but through faith. Significantly, the following chapter immediately urged Christians towards diligent good works. The pattern resembles the New Testament relationship between grace, faith and obedience: good works do not provide the basis of God's saving favour, but they belong to the life that follows it.
  
−
[[Diogenes of Sinope|Diogenes]], speaking in jest, credited the god [[Hermes]] with its invention: he allegedly took pity on his son [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]], who was pining for [[Echo (mythology)|Echo]] but unable to seduce her, and taught him the trick of masturbation in order to relieve his suffering. Pan in his turn taught the habit to young shepherds.<ref>Dio Crysostom, ''Discourses,'' iv.20</ref>
+
As Christian theology developed, grace was increasingly discussed alongside [[Baptism|baptism]], the Eucharist, human freedom, sanctification and participation in the life of God.
  
−
=== Religious views ===
+
==== Augustine and Pelagius ====
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{{main|Religious views on masturbation}}
 
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:''Also see [[Sexuality and religion|Sexuality and Religion]] for broad coverage of this topic''
 
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Religions vary broadly in their views of masturbation, from completely impermissible<ref>{{cite web
 
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|url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm#2352
 
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|title = Catechism of the Catholic Church
 
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|accessdate = 2007-10-08
 
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|quote = Both the Magisterium of the Church, in the course of a constant tradition, and the moral sense of the faithful have been in no doubt and have firmly maintained that masturbation is an intrinsically and gravely disordered action.
 
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}}</ref> to encouraged as a way to achieve greater spirituality (see, for example [[Tantric sexuality]] and [[Taoist sexual practices]]). In the modern [[St. Priapus Church]], group male masturbation is a form of worship.<ref>Wayne Dynes (ed., 1990). ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' (New York: Garland) p. 779.</ref>
 
  
−
=== Philosophical arguments ===
+
One of the most important disputes about grace occurred in the early fifth century between [[Augustine]] and [[Pelagius]] and his supporters.
−
[[Immanuel Kant]] regarded masturbation as a violation of the moral law. In the ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (1797) he made the ''[[a posteriori]]'' argument that 'such an unnatural use of one's sexual attributes' strikes 'everyone upon his thinking of it' as 'a violation of one's duty to himself', and suggested that it was regarded as immoral even to give it its proper name (unlike the case of the similarly undutiful act of [[suicide]]). He went on, however, to acknowledge that 'it is not so easy to produce a rational demonstration of the inadmissibility of that unnatural use', but ultimately concluded that its immorality lay in the fact that 'a man gives up his personality … when he uses himself merely as a means for the gratification of an animal drive'.
 
  
−
Subsequent critics of masturbation tended to argue against it on more physiological grounds, however (see [[Masturbation#Medical attitudes|medical attitudes]]).
+
The controversy concerned the extent to which fallen human beings could turn towards God and obey him through their natural powers. Augustine insisted that grace was not merely God's creation of human free will, the giving of the law, the example of Christ or the forgiveness of previous sins. Fallen people required God's inward action to enable them to will and perform what was good.
  
−
=== Medical attitudes ===
+
For Augustine, even the beginning of a person's movement towards God depended upon grace. Grace did not simply make obedience easier; without God's gracious action, saving obedience was impossible.
−
{{Refimprovesect|date=March 2008}}
 
−
The first use of the word "onanism" to consistently and specifically refer to masturbation appears to be ''Onania'', an anonymous pamphlet first distributed in London in 1716. It drew on familiar themes of sin and vice, this time in particular against the "heinous sin" of "self-pollution". After dire warnings that those who so indulged would suffer [[impotence]], [[gonorrhea]], [[epilepsy]] and a wasting of the faculties (included were letters and testimonials supposedly from young men ill and dying from the effects of compulsive masturbation) the pamphlet then goes on to recommend as an effective remedy a "Strengthening Tincture" at 10 shillings a bottle and a "Prolific Powder" at 12 shillings a bag, available from a local shop.
 
−
[[Image:Sexpatent01-excerpt.png|thumb|left|A [[patented]] device designed to prevent masturbation by inflicting electric shocks upon the perpetrator, by ringing an alarm bell, and through spikes at the inner edge of the tube into which the penis is inserted. The entire patent document: [[Media:Sexpatent01.png|Page 1]], [[Media:Sexpatent02.png|2]], [[Media:Sexpatent03.png|3]], [[Media:Sexpatent04.png|4]].]]
 
  
−
One of the many horrified by the descriptions of malady in ''Onania'' was the notable Swiss physician [[Samuel-Auguste Tissot]]. In 1760, he published ''L'Onanisme'', his own comprehensive medical treatise on the purported ill-effects of masturbation. Citing case studies of young male masturbators amongst his patients in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]] as basis for his reasoning, Tissot argued that semen was an "essential oil" and "stimulus" that, when lost from the body in great amounts, would cause "a perceptible reduction of strength, of memory and even of reason; blurred vision, all the nervous disorders, all types of [[gout]] and [[rheumatism]], weakening of the organs of generation, blood in the urine, disturbance of the appetite, headaches and a great number of other disorders."
+
The Second Council of Orange in 529 strongly affirmed this priority of grace. It taught that even the beginning of faith and the desire to turn towards God depended upon the work of the Holy Spirit rather than arising independently from fallen human nature.
  
−
Though Tissot's ideas are now considered [[hypothesis|conjectural]] at best, his treatise was presented as a scholarly, scientific work in a time when experimental physiology was practically nonexistent. The authority with which the work was subsequently treated – Tissot's arguments were even acknowledged and echoed by luminaries such as [[Kant]] and [[Voltaire]] – arguably turned the perception of masturbation in Western medicine over the next two centuries into that of a debilitating illness.
+
These debates profoundly shaped later Western Christian thinking.
  
−
This continued well into the [[Victorian Era]], where such medical censure of masturbation was in line with the widespread social [[conservatism]] and opposition to open sexual behavior common at the time.<ref>[http://www.noharmm.org/paige.htm The Ritual of Circumcision]</ref><ref>Stengers, Jean; van Neck, Anne. ''Masturbation: the history of a great terror''. New York: Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 0-312-22443-5.</ref> There were recommendations to have boys' pants constructed so that the genitals could not be touched through the pockets, for schoolchildren to be seated at special desks to prevent their crossing their legs in class and for girls to be forbidden from riding horses and bicycles because the sensations these activities produce were considered too similar to masturbation. Boys and young men who nevertheless continued to indulge in the practice were branded as "weak-minded."<ref>[http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a5/Sexpatent02.png Surgical Appliance]</ref> Many "remedies" were devised, including eating a bland, meatless diet. This approach was promoted by [[John Harvey Kellogg|Dr. John Harvey Kellogg]] (inventor of [[corn flakes]]) and [[Sylvester Graham|Rev. Sylvester Graham]] (inventor of [[Graham cracker]]s). The medical literature of the times describes procedures for electric shock treatment, [[infibulation]], restraining devices like [[chastity belt]]s and [[straitjacket]]s, [[cauterization]] or – as a last resort – wholesale [[Excision|surgical excision]] of the genitals. Routine neonatal [[circumcision]] was widely adopted in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] at least partly because of its believed preventive effect against masturbation (see also [[History of male circumcision#Male circumcision to prevent masturbation|History of male circumcision]]). In later decades, the more drastic of these measures were increasingly replaced with psychological techniques, such as warnings that masturbation led to blindness, hairy hands or stunted growth. Some of these persist as myths even today.
+
=== Medieval Christianity ===
−
[[Image:Chastity belt Heyser 0.png|thumb|Image of a [[chastity belt]] from a patent document. For entire document, see: [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 1.png|Page 1]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 2.png|2]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 3.png|3]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 4.png|4]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 5.png|5]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 6.png|6]]]]
 
  
−
At the same time, the supposed medical condition of [[hysteria]]&mdash;from the Greek ''hystera'' or uterus&mdash;was being treated by what would now be described as medically administered or medically prescribed masturbation for women. Techniques included use of the earliest vibrators and rubbing the genitals with placebo creams.<ref name=Maines>{{cite book|id=ISBN 0-8018-6646-4|title=The Technology of Orgasm: "Hysteria", the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction|author=Rachel P. Maines|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore|year=1999}}</ref>
+
During the medieval period Western theologians developed increasingly detailed accounts of grace and its relationship to the Christian life.
  
−
Medical attitudes toward masturbation began to change at the beginning of the 20th century when [[H. Havelock Ellis]], in his seminal 1897 work ''Studies in the Psychology of Sex'', questioned Tissot's premises, cheerfully named famous men of the era who masturbated and then set out to disprove (with the work of more recent physicians) each of the claimed diseases of which masturbation was purportedly the cause. "We reach the conclusion", he wrote, "that in the case of moderate masturbation in healthy, well-born individuals, no seriously pernicious results necessarily follow."
+
[[Thomas Aquinas]], for example, taught that fallen human nature required grace to be healed and that human beings required grace to be raised towards the supernatural life of fellowship with God. He distinguished different ways in which God's gracious action operates but maintained that God alone is ultimately the cause of grace.
  
−
[[Robert Baden-Powell]], the founder of [[The Scout Association]], incorporated a passage in the 1914 edition of ''[[Scouting for Boys]]'' warning against the dangers of masturbation. This passage stated that the individual should run away from the temptation by performing physical activity which was supposed to tire the individual so that masturbation could not be performed. By 1930, however, Dr. [[F. W. W. Griffin]], editor of ''The Scouter,'' had written in a book for Rover Scouts that the temptation to masturbate was "a quite natural stage of development" and, citing [[H. Havelock Ellis|Ellis]]' work, held that "the effort to achieve complete abstinence was a very serious error."
+
Grace was also closely associated with the sacramental life of the Church. These developments provided part of the theological background against which the Protestant Reformation later occurred.
  
−
The works of Sexologist [[Alfred Kinsey]] during the 1940s and 1950s insisted that masturbation was an instinctive behavior for both males and females, citing the results of Gallup Poll surveys indicating how common it was in the United States. Some critics of this theory held that his research was biased and that the Gallup Poll method was redundant for defining "natural behavior".
+
==== Eastern Orthodox Christianity ====
  
−
In 1994, when the [[Surgeon General of the United States]], Dr. [[Joycelyn Elders]], mentioned as an aside that it should be mentioned in school [[curriculum|curricula]] that masturbation was safe and healthy, she was forced to resign,<ref>[http://www.jackinworld.com/library/articles/elders.html JackinLibrary: Joycelyn Elders]</ref> with opponents asserting that she was promoting the teaching of ''how'' to masturbate. Many believe this was the result of her long history of promoting controversial viewpoints and not due solely to her public mention of masturbation.
+
Eastern Christian theology developed with somewhat different emphases from the medieval Latin West. In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], grace is commonly described as the saving and deifying activity of God through the Holy Spirit. Salvation involves [[Theosis|theosis]], participation in the life of God, and grace transforms the believer rather than merely altering his legal standing.
  
−
=== Law ===
+
Orthodox theology strongly insists that grace is God's gift and that salvation cannot be achieved independently of God, while also speaking of ''synergy'': human beings respond to and cooperate with God's gracious action. The sacramental and communal life of the Church has an important place within this understanding.
−
The legal status of masturbation throughout history has varied from virtually unlimited acceptance to complete illegality. In a 1640s law code for the [[Puritan]] colony of [[New Haven, Connecticut]] in the 17th century "[[blasphemy|blasphemers]], [[Homosexuality|homosexuals]] and masturbators" were eligible for the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]].<ref>{{cite book
 
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| last = James
 
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| first = Lawrence
 
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| authorlink = Lawrence James
 
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| title = The Rise and Fall of the British Empire
 
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| publisher = St. Martin's Griffin
 
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|date=[[September 15]], [[1997]]
 
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| pages = 41
 
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| isbn = 978-0312169855 }} The context is a discussion of the social habits of the early North American colonists.</ref>
 
  
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=== Masturbate-a-thon ===
+
=== The Protestant Reformation ===
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{{main | Masturbate-a-thon}}
 
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[[Image:CSC Herme Masturbate-a-Thon Logo Original for Wiki.jpg|thumb|right]]
 
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Masturbate-a-thons are public, charity events that are "intended to encourage people to explore safer sex, talk about masturbation and lift the taboos that still surround the subject."<ref name="Masturbate-a-thon.co.uk">{{cite web
 
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| title = Masturbate-a-thon website
 
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| publisher = Masturbate-a-thon
 
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| date = 2006-08-04
 
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| url = http://www.masturbate-a-thon.co.uk/
 
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| format = html
 
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| accessdate = 2006-08-06}}</ref> May is considered "Masturbation Month" by sex-positive organizations and activists, including [[Betty Dodson]], [[Joani Blank]], [[Susan Block]], [[Kyla Zellers]], [[Carol Queen]], and [[Gary Francis Fanning Jr.]].
 
  
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== Euphemisms ==
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Grace became one of the defining issues of the sixteenth-century [[Protestant Reformation]]. At the heart of the dispute was a basic question: how is a sinner made right with God?
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A large variety of [[euphemism]]s and [[dysphemism]]s exist which describe masturbation. For a complete list of terms, see the entry for ''[[wikt:Wikisaurus:masturbate|masturbate]]'' in [[Wiktionary|Wikisaurus]].
 
  
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== Masturbation in media ==
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The Reformers emphasised sola gratia - "grace alone". They taught that people could not earn God's acceptance through good works, religious practices or personal merit. Instead, a sinner was justified (declared right with God) entirely because of God's grace, received through [[Faith]] in Jesus Christ.
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===Paintings and drawings===
 
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[[Image:Klimt Mulher sentada.jpg|thumb|A Young Woman Masturbating, depicted by [[Gustav Klimt]]]]
 
  
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There are depictions of male masturbation in prehistoric [[rock painting]]s around the world. Most early people seem to have connected human sexuality with abundance in nature. A clay figurine of the 4th millennium BC from a temple site on the island of [[Malta]], depicts a woman masturbating. However, in the ancient world depictions of male masturbation are far more common.
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The controversy first became public over the sale and preaching of indulgences ''(a Church-granted reduction in punishment for sins)''. These belonged to the wider medieval Catholic system of penance. A Christian who committed serious sin after baptism was ordinarily expected to repent, confess the sin to a priest, receive absolution (the priest's declaration of forgiveness) and carry out acts of penance.
  
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===Film===
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In 1517, [[Martin Luther]] publicly challenged the preaching of indulgences. His criticism soon developed into a much deeper disagreement about salvation itself. Luther argued that a sinner is made right with God through faith in Christ, because of God's grace, rather than through a process involving faith, the sacraments, acts of penance and meritorious works.
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<!-- Please expand this section, but do not attempt to compile a list of every masturbation scene ever filmed. Any unsourced content will be removed. -->
 
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A number of films feature masturbation scenes.
 
  
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===Music===
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The Lutheran Augsburg Confession later expressed this clearly, teaching that people could not be justified before God by their own strength, merits or works, but were freely justified for Christ's sake through faith.
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In popular music, there are a handful of songs that deal with the issue of masturbation. Some of the earliest examples are "[[My Ding-a-Ling]]" by [[Chuck Berry]] and "[[Pictures of Lily]]" by [[The Who]].<ref>"''Merely a ditty about masturbation and the importance of it to a young man. I was really diggin' at my folks who, when catching me at it, would talk in loud voices in the corridor outside my room. "Why can't he go with girls like other boys?''" Quote by [[Pete Townshend]]</ref>
 
  
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Some of the more recent popular songs are "[[Turning Japanese]]" by [[The Vapors]], a reference to the Oriental facial features people get at the moment of climax and "[[She Bop]]" by [[Cyndi Lauper]] which was so obviously about masturbation that it was required to have a [[parental advisory]] sticker. In an interview Lauper admitted recording the song naked. "[[I Touch Myself]]" by [[Divinyls]] is a celebration of female masturbation. "[[Touch of My Hand]]" by [[Britney Spears]] is also about how female masturbation is normal.
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The Reformed Heidelberg Catechism made a similar point, describing forgiveness, righteousness and salvation as gifts given by grace because of Christ rather than earned through human merit.
  
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The song [[Orgasm Addict]] by The [[Buzzcocks]] also features lyrics centered around the theme of masturbation. Another song, [[Wow, I Can Get Sexual Too]] By [[Say Anything]] has a chorus that repeats the lines "She Touched Herself".
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This did not mean that Protestants rejected baptism, the Lord's Supper or the preaching of Scripture. Lutheran, Anglican, Reformed and other Protestant traditions continued to regard these as important ways through which God strengthens and teaches his people. The disagreement was over whether such practices formed part of the process by which a sinner became right with God.
  
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The song [[Masturbation]] by rock group [[Mindless Self Indulgence]] also deals with the concept of auto-erotic activity in a [[Punk subculture|punk]] framework.
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The Roman Catholic response to the Reformation was formally expressed at the Council of Trent, particularly in its Decree on Justification in 1547. The Council taught that salvation begins with God's grace rather than human effort; however, it also taught that people must cooperate with that grace and that God gives grace through the sacraments of the Church. This included confession. A person who committed serious sin after baptism was expected to repent, confess the sin to a priest and receive absolution. The absolution was understood as a real means through which Christ granted forgiveness, rather than simply an announcement that forgiveness had already taken place apart from the sacrament.
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===Literature=== 
 
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In October 1972, an important censorship case was held in Australia, leading to the banning of [[Philip Roth]]'s novel ''[[Portnoy's Complaint]]'' in that country due to its masturbation references. The censorship led to public outcry at the time. <ref>[http://www.crikey.com.au/Politics/20060829-Censorship-and-Don-Chipp.html Crikey - Don Chipp: larrikin, censor, and party founder - Don Chipp: larrikin, censor, and party founder<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
 
  
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== Masturbation in other animal species ==
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Catholic theology therefore speaks of sacramental grace: the belief that God truly gives grace through sacraments such as baptism, confession and the Eucharist.
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{{main | Animal sexuality#Autoeroticism (masturbation)}}
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Masturbatory behavior has been documented in a very wide range of species. Individuals of some species have been known to create tools for masturbation purposes.<ref name="Bagemihl,1999"/>
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The Reformers rejected this understanding of justification. They argued that a sinner is made right with God through faith in Christ alone, entirely because of God's grace, and not through the sacraments or good works. The central disagreement was therefore not about whether grace was necessary - both Catholics and Protestants affirmed that - but about how grace is received and how a sinner becomes right with God.
 +
 
 +
Further disagreements then developed within Protestant Christianity about how God's grace brings a person to faith. In the Reformed or Calvinist tradition, God does more than make salvation possible. His grace effectively brings those he calls to repentance and faith. Salvation therefore begins with God's action rather than with an independent human decision.
 +
 
 +
The Arminian and later Wesleyan tradition also teaches that people cannot turn to God without his grace; however, it teaches that God first gives prevenient grace ''(grace enabling a human response)'', allowing people genuinely to repent and believe while still allowing them to refuse God's grace. [[John Wesley]] spoke of this grace coming before conversion and enabling a person to respond to God. He also spoke of God's grace continuing throughout the Christian life: bringing conviction of sin, justification and sanctification.
 +
 
 +
== Grace in Language and Popular Culture ==
 +
The theological importance of grace profoundly influenced the English language. The English word came through Old French from Latin gratia, with meanings including favour, goodwill, gratitude and pleasingness. Over time "grace" acquired several related meanings: divine favour, elegance or beauty, courteous behaviour, a prayer of thanks before a meal and even an ornamental musical note.
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 +
Perhaps the best-known cultural expression of Christian grace is [[Amazing Grace]], written by [[John Newton]] in 1772 and first published in ''Olney Hymns'' in 1779. Newton had earlier participated in the Atlantic slave trade and later became an outspoken opponent of it. His hymn interpreted salvation autobiographically as the rescue of a sinful and undeserving person through God's grace. It eventually became one of the best-known Christian hymns in the English-speaking world.
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 +
The idea has also continued within modern popular music. U2 concluded their 2000 album ''All That You Can't Leave Behind'' with the song ''Grace'', personifying grace as something operating outside ordinary systems of repayment and retribution. Its memorable concluding image is: "Grace makes beauty out of ugly things."
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 +
The line captures one genuine dimension of the Christian idea: grace does not simply overlook what is damaged but can transform it.
 +
 
 +
The secular use of "grace" to describe beauty, elegance or generosity is therefore not entirely disconnected from the theological meaning. In each case there is an idea of something good that is given, bestowed or present beyond what strict necessity requires.
 +
 
 +
== Theological Discussion ==
 +
=== Grace is more than "unmerited favour" ===
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 +
Grace is frequently defined in evangelical Christianity as "unmerited favour". This is a useful definition, particularly because it captures the fact that grace cannot be earned.
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 +
Yet by itself it is incomplete. Biblically, grace is not only God's favourable disposition towards a person. Grace acts. God graciously chooses, calls, forgives, gives, rescues, justifies, strengthens, transforms and preserves.
 +
 
 +
A fuller definition might therefore be: Grace is God's freely given favour expressed through his loving action towards those who have not earned it, ultimately revealed in Jesus Christ and active in saving, transforming and sustaining his people.
 +
 
 +
=== Grace begins with God ===
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 +
The fundamental direction of grace is from God towards humanity. Christian salvation does not begin when a person makes himself sufficiently virtuous to attract God's attention. It begins in the character and initiative of God ([[1 John 4:19]]).
 +
 
 +
This priority runs throughout Scripture. God called Abraham. God heard Israel in slavery. He sent the prophets. He sent his Son. Christ died for sinners. God raises the spiritually dead to life.
 +
 
 +
Grace means that God's saving action is fundamentally gift before achievement.
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 +
=== Grace and justice ===
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Grace does not mean that God ceases to care about justice. This can already be seen in [[Exodus 34]]:6-7. The same revelation that declares God compassionate, gracious and abundant in steadfast love also declares that he does not simply treat guilt as though it did not exist.
 +
 
 +
The cross brings these themes together. [[Romans 3]]:24-26 presents justification as a free gift of grace while simultaneously presenting the death of Christ as the means by which God demonstrates his righteousness.
 +
 
 +
Christian grace is therefore not divine indifference towards evil. Forgiveness is possible because God himself acts decisively against sin through Christ.
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 +
=== Grace and faith ===
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The New Testament repeatedly connects grace with [[Faith]] ([[Romans 4:16]] and [[Ephesians 2]]:8-9).
 +
 
 +
Faith is not a price paid for grace. It is the means by which the believer receives what God gives. This distinction is crucial. Faith does not become a superior kind of religious work by which someone earns salvation. The object of faith is Christ, and its significance lies in receiving and trusting what Christ has accomplished.
 +
 
 +
=== Grace and works ===
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 +
Grace excludes boasting in works as the ground of salvation, but it does not abolish obedience. The sequence of [[Ephesians 2]]:8-10 is important: grace → salvation through faith → new creation → good works.
 +
 
 +
Good works are not the cause of salvation but one of its intended results.
 +
 
 +
The same pattern occurs in Titus. Grace appears, brings salvation, and then trains God's people to live differently. In other words, grace brings transformation.
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 +
A person who concludes that grace gives permission to live indefinitely without repentance has misunderstood what biblical grace does.
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 +
=== Grace and human freedom ===
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 +
One of the longest-running theological questions concerns the relationship between God's grace and the human response.
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 +
Scripture clearly presents God as taking the initiative. No one comes to Christ apart from the Father's drawing ([[John 6:44]]), and God works within believers both to will and to act ([[Philippians 2:13]]).
 +
 
 +
Yet Scripture also continually commands people to repent, believe, obey, persevere and not resist God.
 +
 
 +
Different Christian traditions construct the relationship between these truths differently. Reformed theology emphasises God's effectual calling and sovereign grace. Arminian and Wesleyan theology emphasises grace that precedes and enables the human response while allowing that grace to be resisted.
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Whatever theological model is adopted, the biblical order should remain clear: humanity does not first become spiritually capable and then summon God's assistance. God's grace comes first.
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 +
=== Grace and the Holy Spirit ===
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Grace can also be understood in a Trinitarian way. Grace originates in the loving purpose of the Father, is revealed and accomplished through the Son, and is applied and made effective in believers through the [[Holy Spirit]].
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Grace is the activity of the living God. The Spirit gives life, produces holiness, distributes gifts, strengthens believers and forms the character of Christ within them. The New Testament's language of grace therefore overlaps with its teaching about the indwelling and transforming work of the Holy Spirit.
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=== Grace and Christian character ===
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Those who receive grace are called to become gracious.
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Jesus repeatedly connected the mercy received from God with mercy shown towards other people. The servant who had been forgiven an enormous debt but refused to forgive another person's small debt had failed to understand the mercy he had received ([[Matthew 18]]:21-35).
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Paul similarly connected God's forgiveness with Christian forgiveness ([[Ephesians 4:32]]).
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A theology of grace that produces pride, contempt or cruelty contradicts the character of the grace it claims to defend.
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The recipient of grace has no basis for spiritual superiority. Everything has been received ([[1 Corinthians 4:7]]).
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=== Grace as the shape of salvation ===
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Grace should therefore not be confined to one stage of Christian salvation. It is grace when God calls. It is grace when God forgives. It is grace when God justifies. It is grace when God adopts. It is grace when the Spirit transforms. It is grace when God gives gifts for ministry. It is grace when Christ sustains a believer through weakness. And it will be grace when Christ finally raises his people and brings them into eternal life.
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Christian salvation begins, continues and ends with the generosity of God.
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==Quotes==
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U2
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: Grace makes beauty out of ugly things
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==Video==
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<YouTube>
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title=The Grace Narrative - Dr. Timothy Keller
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ezXufQWvIlw
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&rel=1
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embed_source_url=http://www.youtube.com/v/ezXufQWvIlw
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&rel=1
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wrap = yes
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width=500
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height=400
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</YouTube>
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{{returnto}} [[Christianity]] -> [[Christian doctrine and debates]]
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[[Category:Christian doctrine and debates]]
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[[Category:Videos]]
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[[Category:Pages with YouTube content]]

Latest revision as of 03:56, 18 October 2026

He has said to me, "My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness." Most gladly therefore I will rather glory in my weaknesses, that the power of Christ may rest on me. 2 Corinthians 12:9
Grace
RELATED TOPICS
SERMONS, ESSAYS AND OPINIONS
CONTENTS

Grace, in Christianity, refers to God's love and salvation being poured out on people even though they don't deserve this love and favour.

It is especially seen in God's action to save sinners who cannot rescue themselves, but the biblical idea is broader than forgiveness alone. By grace God calls, forgives, justifies, adopts, transforms, strengthens and sustains his people, and gives them gifts with which to serve others.

Grace therefore lies near the centre of the biblical account of Salvation. Humanity turns away from its Creator in Sin, yet God continues to seek, forgive and restore. God's grace is revealed most fully in Jesus Christ, who entered human history as God the Son, died for sinners and rose again so that those who trust in him might be reconciled to God.

The Bible never gives a single dictionary-style definition of grace. Instead, its meaning emerges from the character and actions of God throughout Scripture. Grace is present long before the New Testament begins, but in the New Testament the language of grace becomes particularly prominent, especially in the writings of the Apostle Paul.

The Biblical Idea

Grace in the Old Testament

The Old Testament consistently shows God as gracious, merciful and faithful. Grace was present from the beginning of God's dealings with humanity. God's preservation of Noah, his calling of Abraham, his rescue of Israel from Egypt, his covenant with Israel, his patience with a rebellious people and his repeated willingness to forgive all display divine grace.

The principal Hebrew noun corresponding to the idea of favour or grace is חֵן (ḥen). It commonly describes favourable regard freely shown by one person towards another and, importantly, by God towards human beings. It often occurs in the expression "to find favour in the eyes of" someone. The related verb חָנַן (ḥanan) means to show favour, be gracious or have compassion.

The first major biblical example occurs with Noah in Genesis 6:8: Noah "found favour" (ḥen) in the eyes of Yahweh.

The Greek Septuagint translated the Hebrew expression with χάρις (charis), the same Greek noun that later becomes the principal New Testament word for grace.

The language becomes particularly important in Moses' relationship with Yahweh. In Exodus 33:12-17 Moses repeatedly speaks of having found favour in God's sight. Moses' experience of grace leads immediately into one of the Old Testament's most important declarations about the character of God in Exodus 34:6-7 where Yahweh reveals himself as compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness. Grace is therefore rooted in who God is. God does gracious things because God is gracious.

Another important Hebrew word is חֶסֶד (ḥesed). It is often translated "steadfast love", "loving kindness", "loyal love", "mercy" or "faithfulness". Older Christian writing sometimes treated ḥesed almost as if it were simply the Old Testament word for "grace", but this is too narrow. Ḥesed particularly carries the idea of faithful, enduring and relational love, often in a covenant setting. It overlaps strongly with grace without being identical to ḥēn. In the Septuagint it is commonly translated with ἔλεος (eleos), "mercy", rather than charis.

Together these words reveal complementary aspects of God's character. Ḥen emphasises favour graciously given; ḥesed emphasises God's steadfast and faithful love.

This is important when reading John 1:14-17. John's description of Jesus as "full of grace and truth" probably echoes Yahweh's revelation to Moses in Exodus 34:6, where God is abundant in steadfast love and faithfulness. John therefore presents Jesus not as introducing a previously unknown gracious God, but as the supreme revelation of the gracious character God had already revealed.

Other important Old Testament passages include Psalm 84:11, where God gives grace or favour and glory; Proverbs 3:34, where God gives grace to the humble; and Zechariah 12:10, which speaks of a "spirit of grace" or supplication.

Grace in the New Testament

The principal New Testament word translated grace is the Greek noun χάρις (charis). It occurs about 155 times in the New Testament. Its range of meaning includes favour, kindness, graciousness, benefit, gratitude and, particularly in Christian usage, God's freely bestowed favour. It does not simply mean "gift", although the ideas are closely connected. The related noun χάρισμα (charisma) means a gracious or freely given gift, while χαρίζομαι (charizomai) can mean to grant something freely or to forgive a debt or offence.

This word-family helps explain the New Testament understanding of grace. Grace is not simply an emotion within God. It produces gifts and actions. What God graciously wills, he graciously gives.

Grace in Jesus Christ

Although charis is not especially frequent in the Synoptic Gospels, the reality of grace permeates the ministry of Jesus.

Jesus welcomed sinners, touched people regarded as unclean, healed those who could not repay him and ate with people despised by respectable society. His parables repeatedly portrayed the generosity of God towards people who had no claim upon him.

The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Luke 15:11-32 is among the clearest pictures of this. The returning son could offer no restoration of everything he had squandered. He intended to ask merely for the position of a servant, yet the father received him as a son. The initiative, welcome and restoration flowed from the father's love.

The parable of the workers in the vineyard in Matthew 20:1-16 similarly portrays a master whose generosity exceeds calculations of what individual workers deserve.

Yet the fullest expression of grace is not one particular saying of Jesus. It is Jesus himself. John 1:14-17 describes the incarnate Word as full of grace and truth and declares that from his fullness believers receive "grace upon grace". The passage reaches its climax by contrasting Moses' role in giving the law with the arrival of grace and truth through Jesus Christ. This should not be read as if Moses represented an age devoid of grace. Rather, God's grace reaches its decisive revelation and fulfilment in Christ.

Grace and the Cross

The New Testament particularly connects grace with the death and resurrection of Jesus.

Romans 3:23-26 brings together the problem of sin, the free nature of justification and the redemptive work of Christ. All have sinned and fall short of God's glory, yet believers are justified freely by God's grace through the redemption accomplished in Christ (Romans 5:8).

The striking feature of this grace is its direction. Christ did not die for humanity once humanity had made itself worthy of him. God acted while people were still sinners.

Paul develops this contrast throughout Romans 5. Adam's trespass brought condemnation and death; God's gracious gift in Jesus Christ abounds beyond the trespass. Grace is God's answer to human sin, but it does not pretend that sin is insignificant. The cross reveals both the seriousness of sin and the abundance of grace.

Saved by grace

One of the clearest summaries of salvation by grace occurs in Ephesians 2:1-10. Human beings are first described as spiritually dead in trespasses and sins. God then makes them alive together with Christ.

Salvation is by grace, through faith, and is not the achievement of human works. Consequently there is no ground for boasting. Yet Paul immediately adds that those who are saved are created in Christ Jesus for good works.

Grace and good works therefore stand in a particular relationship. Works do not purchase grace; grace produces a changed life in which good works follow.

Paul makes the same point autobiographically in 1 Corinthians 15:10. Paul attributes both what he had become and the work he subsequently performed to the grace of God. Grace did not make him passive. It produced labour, obedience and ministry.

Grace as power and help

Grace in the New Testament is more than God's decision not to punish. When Paul pleaded for the removal of his "thorn in the flesh", Christ answered that his grace was sufficient because divine power was made perfect in weakness (2 Corinthians 12:8-10). Here grace is sustaining power.

Likewise, the writer of Hebrews tells believers to approach God's throne of grace confidently so that they may receive mercy and find grace for help when needed (Hebrews 4:16).

Grace is something upon which Christians continue to depend after conversion.

Grace transforms

Grace is sometimes caricatured as God overlooking wrongdoing. The New Testament instead describes grace as an enemy of sin.

Titus 2:11-14 explains that the grace of God has appeared bringing salvation and training believers to reject ungodliness and worldly desires and to live godly lives.

Paul similarly asks whether Christians should continue sinning so that grace might increase in Romans 6:1-2. His answer is emphatically negative.

Grace forgives sinners, but its purpose is not to leave them unchanged. The grace that justifies also begins a life of Sanctification.

Gifts of grace

The relationship between charis and charisma is particularly evident in Paul's teaching about spiritual gifts in Romans 12:3-8 1 Corinthians 12:4-11.

Different Christians receive different gifts "according to the grace given" to them. Ministry itself is therefore an expression of grace. A Christian cannot finally boast about his or her abilities, because whatever is genuinely used for God's kingdom has first been received.

Past, present and future grace

The New Testament can speak of grace in past, present and future terms.

Believers have been saved by grace (Ephesians 2:8).

Believers presently stand in grace (Romans 5:2), receive grace for weakness (2 Corinthians 12:9) and approach the throne of grace (Hebrews 4:16).

Peter also tells Christians to set their hope completely upon the grace that will be brought to them at the revelation of Jesus Christ (1 Peter 1:13).

Grace therefore encompasses the whole Christian journey, from God's initiative in calling a sinner to the final salvation that will be revealed when Christ returns.

Grace through Church History

The Early Church

Grace remained central to Christian teaching immediately after the apostolic period.

Around the end of the first century, 1 Clement told the Corinthian Christians that believers were called by God's will in Christ and were not justified by themselves, their wisdom, piety or works, but through faith. Significantly, the following chapter immediately urged Christians towards diligent good works. The pattern resembles the New Testament relationship between grace, faith and obedience: good works do not provide the basis of God's saving favour, but they belong to the life that follows it.

As Christian theology developed, grace was increasingly discussed alongside baptism, the Eucharist, human freedom, sanctification and participation in the life of God.

Augustine and Pelagius

One of the most important disputes about grace occurred in the early fifth century between Augustine and Pelagius and his supporters.

The controversy concerned the extent to which fallen human beings could turn towards God and obey him through their natural powers. Augustine insisted that grace was not merely God's creation of human free will, the giving of the law, the example of Christ or the forgiveness of previous sins. Fallen people required God's inward action to enable them to will and perform what was good.

For Augustine, even the beginning of a person's movement towards God depended upon grace. Grace did not simply make obedience easier; without God's gracious action, saving obedience was impossible.

The Second Council of Orange in 529 strongly affirmed this priority of grace. It taught that even the beginning of faith and the desire to turn towards God depended upon the work of the Holy Spirit rather than arising independently from fallen human nature.

These debates profoundly shaped later Western Christian thinking.

Medieval Christianity

During the medieval period Western theologians developed increasingly detailed accounts of grace and its relationship to the Christian life.

Thomas Aquinas, for example, taught that fallen human nature required grace to be healed and that human beings required grace to be raised towards the supernatural life of fellowship with God. He distinguished different ways in which God's gracious action operates but maintained that God alone is ultimately the cause of grace.

Grace was also closely associated with the sacramental life of the Church. These developments provided part of the theological background against which the Protestant Reformation later occurred.

Eastern Orthodox Christianity

Eastern Christian theology developed with somewhat different emphases from the medieval Latin West. In Eastern Orthodoxy, grace is commonly described as the saving and deifying activity of God through the Holy Spirit. Salvation involves theosis, participation in the life of God, and grace transforms the believer rather than merely altering his legal standing.

Orthodox theology strongly insists that grace is God's gift and that salvation cannot be achieved independently of God, while also speaking of synergy: human beings respond to and cooperate with God's gracious action. The sacramental and communal life of the Church has an important place within this understanding.

The Protestant Reformation

Grace became one of the defining issues of the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation. At the heart of the dispute was a basic question: how is a sinner made right with God?

The Reformers emphasised sola gratia - "grace alone". They taught that people could not earn God's acceptance through good works, religious practices or personal merit. Instead, a sinner was justified (declared right with God) entirely because of God's grace, received through Faith in Jesus Christ.

The controversy first became public over the sale and preaching of indulgences (a Church-granted reduction in punishment for sins). These belonged to the wider medieval Catholic system of penance. A Christian who committed serious sin after baptism was ordinarily expected to repent, confess the sin to a priest, receive absolution (the priest's declaration of forgiveness) and carry out acts of penance.

In 1517, Martin Luther publicly challenged the preaching of indulgences. His criticism soon developed into a much deeper disagreement about salvation itself. Luther argued that a sinner is made right with God through faith in Christ, because of God's grace, rather than through a process involving faith, the sacraments, acts of penance and meritorious works.

The Lutheran Augsburg Confession later expressed this clearly, teaching that people could not be justified before God by their own strength, merits or works, but were freely justified for Christ's sake through faith.

The Reformed Heidelberg Catechism made a similar point, describing forgiveness, righteousness and salvation as gifts given by grace because of Christ rather than earned through human merit.

This did not mean that Protestants rejected baptism, the Lord's Supper or the preaching of Scripture. Lutheran, Anglican, Reformed and other Protestant traditions continued to regard these as important ways through which God strengthens and teaches his people. The disagreement was over whether such practices formed part of the process by which a sinner became right with God.

The Roman Catholic response to the Reformation was formally expressed at the Council of Trent, particularly in its Decree on Justification in 1547. The Council taught that salvation begins with God's grace rather than human effort; however, it also taught that people must cooperate with that grace and that God gives grace through the sacraments of the Church. This included confession. A person who committed serious sin after baptism was expected to repent, confess the sin to a priest and receive absolution. The absolution was understood as a real means through which Christ granted forgiveness, rather than simply an announcement that forgiveness had already taken place apart from the sacrament.

Catholic theology therefore speaks of sacramental grace: the belief that God truly gives grace through sacraments such as baptism, confession and the Eucharist.

The Reformers rejected this understanding of justification. They argued that a sinner is made right with God through faith in Christ alone, entirely because of God's grace, and not through the sacraments or good works. The central disagreement was therefore not about whether grace was necessary - both Catholics and Protestants affirmed that - but about how grace is received and how a sinner becomes right with God.

Further disagreements then developed within Protestant Christianity about how God's grace brings a person to faith. In the Reformed or Calvinist tradition, God does more than make salvation possible. His grace effectively brings those he calls to repentance and faith. Salvation therefore begins with God's action rather than with an independent human decision.

The Arminian and later Wesleyan tradition also teaches that people cannot turn to God without his grace; however, it teaches that God first gives prevenient grace (grace enabling a human response), allowing people genuinely to repent and believe while still allowing them to refuse God's grace. John Wesley spoke of this grace coming before conversion and enabling a person to respond to God. He also spoke of God's grace continuing throughout the Christian life: bringing conviction of sin, justification and sanctification.

Grace in Language and Popular Culture

The theological importance of grace profoundly influenced the English language. The English word came through Old French from Latin gratia, with meanings including favour, goodwill, gratitude and pleasingness. Over time "grace" acquired several related meanings: divine favour, elegance or beauty, courteous behaviour, a prayer of thanks before a meal and even an ornamental musical note.

Perhaps the best-known cultural expression of Christian grace is Amazing Grace, written by John Newton in 1772 and first published in Olney Hymns in 1779. Newton had earlier participated in the Atlantic slave trade and later became an outspoken opponent of it. His hymn interpreted salvation autobiographically as the rescue of a sinful and undeserving person through God's grace. It eventually became one of the best-known Christian hymns in the English-speaking world.

The idea has also continued within modern popular music. U2 concluded their 2000 album All That You Can't Leave Behind with the song Grace, personifying grace as something operating outside ordinary systems of repayment and retribution. Its memorable concluding image is: "Grace makes beauty out of ugly things."

The line captures one genuine dimension of the Christian idea: grace does not simply overlook what is damaged but can transform it.

The secular use of "grace" to describe beauty, elegance or generosity is therefore not entirely disconnected from the theological meaning. In each case there is an idea of something good that is given, bestowed or present beyond what strict necessity requires.

Theological Discussion

Grace is more than "unmerited favour"

Grace is frequently defined in evangelical Christianity as "unmerited favour". This is a useful definition, particularly because it captures the fact that grace cannot be earned.

Yet by itself it is incomplete. Biblically, grace is not only God's favourable disposition towards a person. Grace acts. God graciously chooses, calls, forgives, gives, rescues, justifies, strengthens, transforms and preserves.

A fuller definition might therefore be: Grace is God's freely given favour expressed through his loving action towards those who have not earned it, ultimately revealed in Jesus Christ and active in saving, transforming and sustaining his people.

Grace begins with God

The fundamental direction of grace is from God towards humanity. Christian salvation does not begin when a person makes himself sufficiently virtuous to attract God's attention. It begins in the character and initiative of God (1 John 4:19).

This priority runs throughout Scripture. God called Abraham. God heard Israel in slavery. He sent the prophets. He sent his Son. Christ died for sinners. God raises the spiritually dead to life.

Grace means that God's saving action is fundamentally gift before achievement.

Grace and justice

Grace does not mean that God ceases to care about justice. This can already be seen in Exodus 34:6-7. The same revelation that declares God compassionate, gracious and abundant in steadfast love also declares that he does not simply treat guilt as though it did not exist.

The cross brings these themes together. Romans 3:24-26 presents justification as a free gift of grace while simultaneously presenting the death of Christ as the means by which God demonstrates his righteousness.

Christian grace is therefore not divine indifference towards evil. Forgiveness is possible because God himself acts decisively against sin through Christ.

Grace and faith

The New Testament repeatedly connects grace with Faith (Romans 4:16 and Ephesians 2:8-9).

Faith is not a price paid for grace. It is the means by which the believer receives what God gives. This distinction is crucial. Faith does not become a superior kind of religious work by which someone earns salvation. The object of faith is Christ, and its significance lies in receiving and trusting what Christ has accomplished.

Grace and works

Grace excludes boasting in works as the ground of salvation, but it does not abolish obedience. The sequence of Ephesians 2:8-10 is important: grace → salvation through faith → new creation → good works.

Good works are not the cause of salvation but one of its intended results.

The same pattern occurs in Titus. Grace appears, brings salvation, and then trains God's people to live differently. In other words, grace brings transformation.

A person who concludes that grace gives permission to live indefinitely without repentance has misunderstood what biblical grace does.

Grace and human freedom

One of the longest-running theological questions concerns the relationship between God's grace and the human response.

Scripture clearly presents God as taking the initiative. No one comes to Christ apart from the Father's drawing (John 6:44), and God works within believers both to will and to act (Philippians 2:13).

Yet Scripture also continually commands people to repent, believe, obey, persevere and not resist God.

Different Christian traditions construct the relationship between these truths differently. Reformed theology emphasises God's effectual calling and sovereign grace. Arminian and Wesleyan theology emphasises grace that precedes and enables the human response while allowing that grace to be resisted.

Whatever theological model is adopted, the biblical order should remain clear: humanity does not first become spiritually capable and then summon God's assistance. God's grace comes first.

Grace and the Holy Spirit

Grace can also be understood in a Trinitarian way. Grace originates in the loving purpose of the Father, is revealed and accomplished through the Son, and is applied and made effective in believers through the Holy Spirit.

Grace is the activity of the living God. The Spirit gives life, produces holiness, distributes gifts, strengthens believers and forms the character of Christ within them. The New Testament's language of grace therefore overlaps with its teaching about the indwelling and transforming work of the Holy Spirit.

Grace and Christian character

Those who receive grace are called to become gracious.

Jesus repeatedly connected the mercy received from God with mercy shown towards other people. The servant who had been forgiven an enormous debt but refused to forgive another person's small debt had failed to understand the mercy he had received (Matthew 18:21-35).

Paul similarly connected God's forgiveness with Christian forgiveness (Ephesians 4:32).

A theology of grace that produces pride, contempt or cruelty contradicts the character of the grace it claims to defend.

The recipient of grace has no basis for spiritual superiority. Everything has been received (1 Corinthians 4:7).

Grace as the shape of salvation

Grace should therefore not be confined to one stage of Christian salvation. It is grace when God calls. It is grace when God forgives. It is grace when God justifies. It is grace when God adopts. It is grace when the Spirit transforms. It is grace when God gives gifts for ministry. It is grace when Christ sustains a believer through weakness. And it will be grace when Christ finally raises his people and brings them into eternal life.

Christian salvation begins, continues and ends with the generosity of God.

Quotes

U2

Grace makes beauty out of ugly things

Video


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