Difference between revisions of "Papacy"

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'''Masturbation''' refers to [[sexual]] stimulation, especially of one's own [[sex organ|genitals]] ('''self masturbation''') and often to the point of [[orgasm]]<ref name="webmd">[http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/masturbation-guide Your Guide to Masturbation<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, which is performed manually, by other types of bodily contact (except for [[sexual intercourse]]), by use of objects or tools, or by some combination of these methods.<ref>Based on "masturbation" in ''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition'', Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2003</ref> Masturbation is the most common form of [[autoeroticism]]{{Fact|date=July 2008}}, and the two words are often used as [[synonym]]s, although masturbation with a partner ([[mutual masturbation]]) is also common. [[Non-human animal sexual behavior#Autoeroticism (masturbation)|Animal masturbation]] has been observed in many species, both in the wild and in captivity.<ref>[http://www.petplace.com/horses/breeding-soundness-examination-of-the-stallion/page2.aspx Breeding Soundness Examination of the Stallion]</ref><!--Do not delete this reference.  It is a *named reference* and may be used elsewhere in the article:--><ref name="Bagemihl,1999">Bruce Bagemihl: Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. St. Martin's Press, 1999. ISBN 0-312-19239-8</ref><ref>For further references, see also the main article [[Animal sexuality#Autoeroticism (masturbation)]].</ref>
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{{Infobox_Contents |
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topic_name = The Papacy |
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subtopics = [[Popes Index]]
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* [[Peter and the Papacy]]
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* Titles - [[Holy Father]] |
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opinion_pieces = {{short_opinions}} |
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}}  
  
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==Etymology==
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The [[Pope]] is the head of [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] and [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]. In addition to this spiritual role, the Pope is also head of the independent, sovereign [[Vatican City|State of the Vatican City]], a city-state entirely surrounded by the city of Rome. Prior to 1870, the Pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of central [[Italy]], a territory formally known as the "Patrimony of St Peter" under the terms of the [[Donation of Constantine]], but more familiar as the [[Papal States]]. The office of the Pope is informally called the [[Papacy]] and formally called the Pontificate; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the [[Holy See]] (''Sancta Sedes''). Catholics worldwide consider each pope to be [[Jesus]]' representative on [[Earth]]. The current Pope is Benedict XVI.
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{{wiktionarypar|masturbation}}
 
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The word '''masturbation''' is believed to derive from either the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''mezea'' (''μεζεα'', "penes") or the [[Latin]] ''manus'' ("hand") and the Latin ''turbare'' ("to disturb").<ref>{{cite book |last = Dally |first = Peter |title = The Fantasy Factor |year = 1975 |pages = 135 |publisher = George Weidenfeld and Nicolson Limited |ISBN = 0-297-76945-6}}</ref> A competing [[etymology]] based on the [[Latin]] ''manu stuprare'' ("to defile with the hand") is said by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] to be an "old conjecture"<ref>OED, s.v. ''masturbation''</ref>.
 
  
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While "masturbation" is the medical term for this practice, many other terms and expressions are in common use. In the vernacular, terms such as "pleasuring oneself", "wanking" and "jerking off" are common. See ''[[wikt:Wikisaurus:masturbate|masturbate]]'' in [[Wiktionary|Wikisaurus]] for many others.
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===Other Popes===
  
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== Masturbation techniques ==
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An antipope is a person who claims the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church, or to confusion as to who is the legitimate Pope at the time.
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Ways of masturbating common to members of both sexes include pressing or rubbing the [[genital]] area, either with the fingers or against an object such as a [[pillow]]; inserting fingers or an object into the [[anus]] (see [[anal masturbation]]); and stimulating the penis or vulva with electric [[Vibrator (sensual)|vibrator]]s, which may also be inserted into the vagina or anus. Members of both sexes may also enjoy touching, rubbing, or pinching the [[nipple]]s or other [[erogenous zones]] while masturbating. Both sexes sometimes apply [[personal lubricant|lubricating]] substances to intensify sensation.
 
  
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Reading or viewing [[pornography]], or [[sexual fantasy]], are often common adjuncts to masturbation. Often people will call upon memories during masturbation. Masturbation activities are often [[ritualization|ritualised]]. Various [[sexual fetishism|fetishes]] and [[paraphilia]]s can also play a part in the masturbation ritual. Some potentially harmful or fatal activities include [[autoerotic asphyxiation]] and [[self-bondage]].
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The heads of the [[Coptic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] are also called "Popes" for historical reasons, with the former being called "'''Coptic Pope'''" or "'''Pope of Alexandria'''" and the latter called "'''Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa'''"; the parallel construction "'''Pope of Rome'''" is uncommon but occasionally used.
  
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Some people get [[sexual pleasure]] by [[urethral play|inserting objects into the urethra]] (the tube through which urine and, in men, semen, flows).<ref name="Alice05">{{cite web |last = |first = "Alice" |title = Go ask Alice!: Cock-stuffing |publisher = Columbia University, New York |date = 2005-02-18 |url = http://www.goaskalice.columbia.edu/3516.html |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref> If these objects are [[Urethral sounding|urethral sounds]], the practice is known as "sounding".<ref name="BME06">{{cite web |last = Various authors |first = |title = Urethral Sound |publisher = Body Modification Ezine |date = 2006-04-21 |url = http://wiki.bmezine.com/index.php/Urethral_Sound |format = html/wiki |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref> Other objects such as ball point pens and thermometers are sometimes used, although this practice can lead to injury and/or infection.<ref name="JAAPA06">{{cite web |last = McPartlin |first = Daniel |coauthors = Adam P. Klausner, MD; Tristan T. Berry, MD |title = Case report: A foreign body in the urethra |publisher = Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants |date = 2005-09-09 |url = http://jaapa.com/issues/j20050901/articles/urethral0905.htm |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref> Some people masturbate by using [[automated erotic stimulation device|machines]] that simulate intercourse.
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===Word origins===
  
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Men and women may masturbate until they are close to orgasm, stop for a while to reduce excitement, and then resume masturbating. They may repeat this cycle multiple times. This "stop and go" build-up can achieve even stronger orgasms. Rarely, people quit stimulation just before orgasm to retain the heightened energy that normally comes down after orgasm<ref>[http://www.csis.hku.hk/~bruce/masturb1.html Masturbation, Tantra and Self-love<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Doing this could lead to temporary discomfort due to [[pelvic congestion]].
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The word "Pope" is derived from the Greek word ''pappas'' ("father") and was originally used in an affectionate sense of any priest or bishop (in the exact same way that modern priests are addressed as "Father"). In the 4th and 5th centuries, ''pappas'' (Latinized as ''papa'', a form still preserved in Spanish and Portuguese was still frequently used of any bishop in the West, although it gradually came to be increasingly restricted to its modern, exclusive use by the Bishop of Rome. In the East, especially in Greece and Russia, priests are still referred to as ''pappas''.
  
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Austrian psychoanalyst [[Wilhelm Reich]] in his 1922 essay ''[[Concerning Specific Forms of Masturbation]]'' tried to identify healthy and unhealthy forms of masturbation. He tried to relate the way people masturbated to their degree of inclination towards the opposite sex and to their psycho-sexual pathologies.
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As early as the third century, the Bishop of Alexandria exercised a high degree of central control of suffragan Egyptian bishops, in a manner consciously similar to the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome; the Alexandrian archbishop was given precedence immediately after the Roman pontiff by the [[Council of Nicea]], and adopted the title "Pope of Alexandria," which still forms an integral part of the titles of the Greek Orthodox "Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa" and of the Coptic "Pope of Alexandria and of the See of Saint Mark the Apostle."
  
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=== Female ===
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===Office and nature===
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Female masturbation techniques include a woman stroking or rubbing her [[vulva]], especially her [[clitoris]], with her [[index finger|index]] and/or [[middle finger]]s. Sometimes one or more fingers may be inserted into the vagina to repeatedly stroke its frontal wall where the [[Gräfenberg spot|g-spot]] is located.<ref name="Keesling99">{{cite web |last = Keesling |first = Barbara |title = Beyond Orgasmatron |publisher = Psychology Today |date = November/December 99 (Last Reviewed: 30 August 2004) |url = http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/index.php?term=pto-19991101-000038&page=2 |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref>
 
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Masturbation aids such as a [[Vibrator (sensual)|vibrator]], [[dildo]] or [[Ben Wa balls]] can also be used to stimulate the vagina and clitoris. Many women caress their breasts or stimulate a [[nipple]] with the free hand, if these are receptive areas for sexual stimulation. Anal stimulation is also enjoyed by some. [[Personal lubricant|Lubrication]] is sometimes used during masturbation, especially when [[Sexual penetration|penetration]] is involved, but this is not universal and many women find their [[Vaginal lubrication|natural lubrication]] sufficient.
 
  
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Common positions include lying on back or face down, sitting, squatting, kneeling or standing. In a bath or shower a female may direct tap water at her clitoris and vulva. Lying face down one may use the hands, one may straddle a pillow, the corner or edge of the bed, a partner's leg or some scrunched-up clothing and "[[dry hump|hump]]" the [[vulva]] and [[clitoris]] against it. Standing up a chair, the corner of an item of furniture or even a washing machine can be used to stimulate the clitoris through the labia and clothing.  
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The title "Pope" is an informal one; the formal title of the Pope is "Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, [[Apostolic Succession|Successor]] of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, Servant of the Servants of God," although this is rarely seen or used in full (by comparison, the formal title of the Orthodox Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria is "Successor of Saint Mark the Apostle, Shepherd of Shepherds, Father of Fathers, Supreme Pontiff of All Metropolitans and Bishops, Judge of the World, and Beloved of Christ", often called the "Ecumenical Judge"; the Coptic Pope is styled "Pope and Patriarch of the See of Alexandria and of All the Predication of the Evangelist St. Mark"). In canon law he is referred to as the "Roman Pontiff" (''Pontifex Romanus''). The Pope is styled "Your Holiness" (''Sanctitas Vostra'') and is frequently referred to as "the Holy Father."
  
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In the 1920s, [[Havelock Ellis]] reported that turn-of-the-century seamstresses using treadle-operated sewing machines could achieve orgasm by sitting near the edge of their chairs.<ref>Ellis, Havelock (1927), Studies in the Psychology of Sex (3rd edition), Volume I,; Auto-Erotism: A Study of the Spontaneous Manifestations of the Sexual Impulse; section I; "The Sewing-machine and the Bicycle:" quotes one Pouillet as saying "it is a well-recognized fact that to work a sewing-machine with the body in a certain position produces sexual excitement leading to the orgasm. The occurrence of the orgasm is indicated to the observer by the machine being worked for a few seconds with uncontrollable rapidity. This sound is said to be frequently heard in large French workrooms, and it is part of the duty of the superintendents of the rooms to make the girls sit properly." {{gutenberg|no=13610|name=Studies in the Psychology of Sex, v. I, by Havelock Ellis}}</ref>
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The Pope's signature is usually in the format "''NN. PP. x''" (''e.g.'', [[Pope Paul VI]] signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the ancient title ''Pontifex Maximus'', literally "Greatest Bridge-maker", but usually translated "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of Papal bulls is customarily ''NN. Episcopus Ecclesia Catholicae'' ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is ''NN. Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei'' ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"), the latter title dating to the time of [[Pope Gregory I]] ''the Great''. Other titles used in some official capacity include ''Summus Pontifex'' ("Highest Pontiff"), ''Sanctissimus Pater'' and ''Beatissimus Pater'' ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), ''Sanctissimus Dominus Noster'' ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the [[Middle Ages|Mediaeval period]], ''Dominus Apostolicus'' ("Apostolic Lord").
  
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Women can sexually stimulate themselves by crossing their legs tightly and clenching the muscles in their legs, creating pressure on the genitals. This can potentially be done in public without observers noticing. Some masturbate using only pressure applied to the clitoris without direct contact, for example by pressing the palm or ball of the hand against underwear or other clothing.  
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The Pope's official residence is the Palace of the Vatican, and he also possesses a summer palace at Castel Gandolfo (believed to be situated on the site of the ancient city-state Alba Longa). Historically the official residence of the Pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor Constantinus I. The former Papal summer palace, the Quirinal Palace, has subsequently been the official residence of the Kings of Italy and Presidents of the Italian Republic.
  
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Thoughts, fantasies, and memories of previous instances of arousal and orgasm can produce sexual excitation. Some women can orgasm spontaneously by force of will alone, although this may not strictly qualify as masturbation as no physical stimulus is involved.<ref name="Koedt70">{{cite web |last = Koedt |first = Anne |title = The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm |publisher = Chicago Women's Liberation Union |date = 1970 |url = http://www.cwluherstory.org/classic-feminist-writings/myth-of-the-vaginal-orgasm.html |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref><ref name=kins>The Kinsey Institute [http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/research/ak-data.html#masturbation Data from Alfred Kinsey's studies]. Published online.</ref>
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Contrary to popular belief, it is the Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) and not his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City) which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the Pope's court (the Roman Curia) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church. The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the Pope's various honours, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle St. Peter (see Apostolic Succession). Consequently Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The Pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not obligated to reside in Rome; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the Pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378 the Popes resided not in Rome but in Avignon, a period often called the Babylonian Captivity in allusion to the Biblical exile of Israel (see Avignon Papacy).
  
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Sex therapists will sometimes recommend that female patients take time to masturbate to orgasm, especially if they have not done so before.<ref name="Shuman06">{{cite web |last = Shuman |first = Tracy |title = Your Guide to Masturbation |publisher = WebMD, Inc./The Cleveland Clinic Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology |date = 2006-02 |url = http://www.webmd.com/content/article/45/2953_487.htm |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref><ref name="Knowles02">{{cite web |last = Knowles |first = Jon |title = Masturbation — From Stigma to Sexual Health |publisher = Katharine Dexter McCormick Library/Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc. |date = 2002-11 |url = http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/politics-policy-issues/medical-sexual-health/masturbation-6360.htm |format = html |accessdate = 2006-07-29}}</ref>
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Catholic tradition maintains that the institution of the Pontificate can be found in the [[Bible]], and cites certain key passages in support of this contention. Chief among these passages is [[Matthew 16]]:18-19, wherein Jesus Christ says to [[Apostle Peter|Peter]]:
  
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=== Male ===
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<blockquote>
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[[Image:Masturbating man2.JPG|thumb|right|A man masturbating]]
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''"Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jona! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but My Father Who is in Heaven. And I tell you, you are Peter ''("The Rock" derived from Greek)'', and on this rock I will build My Church, and the gates of Hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give you the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven: and whatever you bind on Earth shall be bound in Heaven, and whatever you loose on Earth shall be loosed in Heaven".''
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Male masturbation techniques are also influenced by a number of factors and personal preferences. Techniques may also differ between [[circumcision|circumcised]] and [[foreskin|uncircumcised]] males, as some techniques which may work for one can be quite painful for the other.  
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</blockquote>
  
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The most common male masturbation technique is simply to hold the [[penis]] with a loose fist and then to move the hand up and down the shaft until [[orgasm]] and [[ejaculation]] take place. The speed of the hand motion will vary from person to person, although it is not uncommon for the speed to increase as ejaculation nears and for it to decrease during the ejaculation itself. When uncircumcised, stimulation of the penis in this way comes from the "pumping" of the [[foreskin]]. This [[Gliding action#Function of gliding action|gliding motion]] of the foreskin reduces friction. When circumcised, there is more direct contact between the hand and the glans, thus a [[personal lubricant]] is sometimes used to reduce friction. Sometimes, if too much pressure is applied, it may be rubbed sore for a time.
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===Status and authority===
  
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Circumcised or not, men may rub or massage the [[Glans penis|glans]], the rim of the glans, and the [[frenular delta]].  
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The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council in its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ (July 18, 1870). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of God was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the apostle was not appointed by Christ the lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole church militant; or that it was a primacy of honour only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be anathema."
  
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Another technique is to place just the index finger and thumb around the penis about halfway along the penis and move the skin up and down. A variation on this is to place the fingers and thumb on the penis as if playing a flute, and then shuttle them back and forth. Another common technique is to lie face down on a comfortable surface such as a mattress or pillow and rub the penis against it until orgasm is achieved. This technique may include the use of a [[simulacrum]], or artificial vagina.
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The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the chair of Peter obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the lord Himself (that is to say, by divine law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema."
  
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There are many other variations on male masturbation techniques. Some men place both hands directly on their penis during masturbation, while others use their free hand to [[fondle]] their [[testicles]], [[nipples]], or other parts of their body. Some may keep their hand stationary while pumping into it with pelvic thrusts in order to simulate the motions of [[sexual intercourse]]. Others may also use vibrators and other sexual devices more commonly associated with female masturbation. A few extremely flexible males can reach and stimulate their penis with their tongue or lips, and so perform [[autofellatio]].
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The Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the primacy of the Roman pontiff," states that (s.1) "the definition of the ecumenical council of Florence, which must be believed by all faithful Christians, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a world-wide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a pre-eminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "clergy and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of hierarchical subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world."
  
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The [[prostate]] gland is one of the organs that contributes fluid to [[semen]]. As the prostate is touch-sensitive, some directly stimulate it using a well-lubricated finger or [[dildo]] inserted through the [[anus]] into the [[rectum]]. Stimulating the prostate from outside, via pressure on the [[perineum]], can be pleasurable as well. Some men, also, enjoy [[anal sex|anal]] stimulation, with fingers or otherwise, without any prostate stimulation.
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The powers of the Pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgement" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgement thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the Pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of Papal infallibility, sc. such that
  
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Semen is sometimes ejaculated onto a [[facial tissue|tissue]] or some other item.
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:when the Roman Pontiff speaks ''ex cathedra'', that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable.
  
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A somewhat controversial ejaculation control technique is to put pressure on the [[perineum]], about halfway between the [[scrotum]] and the [[anus]], just before ejaculating. This can, however, redirect semen into the bladder (referred to as [[retrograde ejaculation]]). If repeated on a regular basis, this technique could cause long term damage due to the pressure put on the nerves and blood vessels in the perineum.
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===Political role===
  
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== Mutual masturbation ==
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Though the progressive Christianisation of the Roman Empire in the Fourth century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the Pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil leader was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I's confrontation with Attila in 452 and was substantially increased in 754, when the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short donated to the Pope a strip of territory which formed the core of the so-called Papal States (properly the Patrimony of St. Peter). In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire; from that date it became the Pope's prerogative to crown the Emperor, a tradition which continued until Emperor Charles V, the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope (subsequent Emperors never received coronation), and which was partially revived by Napoléon Bonaparte. As has been hitherto mentioned, the Pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy.
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[[Image:Geiger-masturbation-mutuelle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Johann Nepomuk]], [[watercolor]], 1840.]]
 
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{{Main|Mutual masturbation}}
 
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''Mutual masturbation'' is a [[sexual act]] where two or more people stimulate themselves or one another sexually, usually with the hands.  
 
  
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It is part of a full repertoire of sexual intercourse, where it may be used as an interlude, [[foreplay]] or as an alternative to penetration. For some people, [[non-penetrative sex]] or frottage is the primary sexual activity of choice above all others. Participants who do not want full sexual intercourse thus still enjoy a mutual sexual act.
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In addition to the Pope's position as a territorial ruler and foremost prince bishop of Christendom (especially prominent with the Renaissance Popes like Pope Alexander VI an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politico, and Pope Julius II, a formidable general and statesman) and as the spiritual head of the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Alexander III), the Pope also possessed a degree of political and temporal authority in his capacity as Supreme Pontiff. Some of the most striking examples of Papal political authority are the Bull Laudabiliter in 1155 (authorising Henry II of England to invade Ireland), the Bull Inter Caeteras in 1493 (leading to the Treaty of Torsedillas in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule) the Bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570 (excommunicating Elizabeth I of England and purporting to release all her subjects from their allegiance to her), the Bull Inter Gravissimas in 1582 (establishing the Gregorian Calendar).  
  
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Mutual masturbation is practiced by people of all [[sexual orientation]]s. If used as an alternative to penile-vaginal penetration, the aim may be to preserve [[virgin]]ity or to prevent pregnancy. Some people choose it as it achieves sexual satisfaction without actual sex, possibly seeing it as an alternative to [[casual sex]].
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===Death or Resignation, and election===
  
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== Masturbation frequency, age and sex ==
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====Death====
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Frequency of masturbation is determined by many factors, e.g., one's resistance to [[sexual tension]], [[hormone]] levels influencing [[sexual arousal]], sexual habits, peer influences, health and one's attitude to masturbation formed by culture.<ref> E. Heiby and J. Becker examined the latter. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7396686&query_hl=21&itool=pubmed_docsum]</ref> Medical causes have also been associated with masturbation.<ref>"Bladder calculus presenting as excessive masturbation." ''Ceylon Med. J.'' 2006 Sept., 51(3):121-2.</ref><ref>"Excessive masturbation after epilepsy surgery." ''Epilepsy Behav.'' 2004 Feb., 5(1):133-6.</ref><ref>"Severe impulsiveness as the primary manifestation of multiple sclerosis in a young female." ''Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.'' 2005 Dec., 59(6):739-42.</ref>
 
  
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Different studies have found that masturbation is frequent in humans. [[Alfred Kinsey|Alfred Kinsey's]] studies have shown that 92% of men and 62% of women have masturbated during their lifespan.<ref name=kins/> Similar results have been found in a British national probability survey. It was found that 95% of men and 71% of women masturbated at some point in their lives. 73% of men and 37% of women reported masturbating in the four weeks before their interview, while 53% of men and 18% of women reported masturbating in the previous seven days.<ref name=gerr>Gerressu, M., Mercer, C.H., Graham, C.A., Wellings, K. and Johnson, A.M. (2007). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=17333329 Prevalence of Masturbation and Associated Factors in a British National Probability Survey]. ''Archives of Sexual Behavior'', Published online.</ref>
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The current regulations regarding a Papal interregnum -- i.e., a Sede Vacante "vacant see" -- were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the Sede Vacante, the Sacred College of Cardinals, composed of the Pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Cardinal Chamberlain; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See. Any decision that needs the assent of the Pope has to wait until a new Pope has been elected and takes office.
  
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"Forty-eight female college students were asked to complete a sexual attitudes questionnaire in which a frequency of masturbation scale was embedded. Twenty-four of the women (the experimental group) then individually viewed an explicit modeling film involving female masturbation. One month later, all subjects again completed the same questionnaire. Subjects in the experimental group also completed a questionnaire evaluating aspects of the film. Results indicated that the experimental group reported a significant increase in the average monthly frequency of masturbation, as compared to the control group. This same group, however, reported that the film had no effect on sexual attitudes or behavior."
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The Pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late Pope's head thrice with a golden hammer and calling his birth name three times. A doctor may or may not have already determined that the Pope had passed away. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the Fisherman's Ring. Usually the ring is on the Pope's right hand. But with Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign, and left it in his desk. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlin cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased Pope's seals are defaced, to keep the Pope's seal from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.
  
−
A 2004 survey by [[Toronto]] magazine [[NOW (magazine)|''NOW'']] was answered by an unspecified number of thousands.<ref>[http://www.nowtoronto.com/minisites/loveandsex/2004/s_survey_results.php NOW's Love and Sex Guide 2004]</ref> The results show that an overwhelming majority of the males – 81% – began masturbating between the ages of 10 and 15. Among females, the same figure was a more modest majority of 55%. (Note that surveys on sexual practices are prone to ''self-[[selection bias]]''.) It is not uncommon however to begin much earlier, and this is more frequent among females: 18% had begun by the time they turned 10, and 6% already by the time they turned 6. Being the main outlet of [[child sexuality]], masturbation has been observed in very young children. In the book ''Human Sexuality: Diversity in Contemporary America'', by Strong, Devault and Sayad, the authors point out, "A baby boy may laugh in his crib while playing with his erect penis (although he does not ejaculate). Baby girls sometimes move their bodies rhythmically, almost violently, appearing to experience [[orgasm]]."
+
The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral; the Popes of the Twentieth century have all been interred in St. Peter's Basilica, but it is expected that the reigning Pope, Pope John Paul II, will be interred in his native Poland. A nine-day period of mourning (novem dialis) follows after the interment of the late Pope.  
  
−
The ''NOW'' magazine survey has it that the frequency of masturbation declines after the age of 17. Many males masturbate daily, or even more frequently, well into their 20s and sometimes far beyond. This decline is more drastic among females, and more gradual among males. While females aged 13–17 masturbated almost once a day on average (and almost as often as their male peers), adult women only masturbated 8–9 times a month, compared to the 18–22 among men. Adolescent youths report being able to masturbate to ejaculation around six times per day, though some men in older middle age report being hard pressed to ejaculate even once per day. On the other hand healthy 21-28 year old males are able to masturbate at least 8-10 times per day if they are not stressed. The survey does not give a full demographic breakdown of respondents, however, and the sexual history of respondents to this poll, who are readers of an urban Toronto lifestyle magazine, may not extend to the general population.
+
====Resignation====
  
−
It appears that females are less likely to masturbate while in a [[heterosexual]] relationship than men. Popular belief asserts that individuals of either sex who are not in sexually active relationships tend to masturbate more frequently than those who are; however, much of the time this is not true as masturbation alone or with a partner is often a feature of a relationship. Contrary to conventional wisdom, several studies actually reveal a positive correlation between the frequency of masturbation and the frequency of intercourse. One study reported a significantly higher rate of masturbation in gay men and women who were in a relationship.<ref>Heilborn, M.L. and Cabral, C.S. (2006). [http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-311X2006000700011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Sexual practices in youth: analysis of lifetime sexual trajectory and last sexual intercourse]. ''Cad Saude Publica, 22, 7,'' pp. 1471-81. Epub 2006 Jun 14.</ref><ref name=gerr/><ref>Menon, A., McAllister, R.H., Watson, W. and Watson, S. (2006). [http://jop.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/1/125 Increased libido associated with quetiapine]. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology, 20, 1,'' pp. 125-7.</ref><ref>Sexual behavior in lesbian and heterosexual women: relations with menstrual cycle phase and partner availability. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2002 May;27(4):489-503.</ref>
+
The Code of Canon Law [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P16.HTM 332 §2] states, ''If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone.''  
  
−
Among some cultures, such as the [[Hopi]] in [[Arizona]], the [[Wogeno]] in [[Oceania]], and the [[Dahomeans]] and [[Namu]] of Africa, masturbation is encouraged, including regular masturbation between males. In certain [[Melanesian]] communities this is expected between older and younger boys. One interesting twist is the [[Sambia]] tribe of [[New Guinea]]. This tribe has rituals and rites of passage surrounding manhood which involve frequent ejaculation through [[fellatio]]. Semen is valued and masturbation is seen as a waste of semen and is therefore frowned upon even though frequent ejaculation is encouraged. The capacity and need to ejaculate is nurtured for years from an early age through fellatio so that it can be consumed rather than wasted. Semen is ingested for strength and is considered in the same line as mothers' milk.<ref>[http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joepages/The%20Sambia.htm The Sambia]</ref>
+
It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that the Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper ''Corriere della Sera''.
  
−
Other cultures have rites of passage into manhood that culminate in the first ejaculation of a male, usually by the hands of a tribal elder. In some tribes such as the Agta, Philippines, stimulation of the genitals is encouraged from an early age.<ref>Cited by Hewlett, B. S. (1996) Diverse contexts of human infancy, in Ember, C. & Ember, M. (Eds.) Cross-Cultural Research for Social Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall</ref> Upon puberty, the young male is then paired off with a "wise elder" or "witch doctor" who uses masturbation to build his ability to ejaculate in preparation for a ceremony. The ceremony culminates in a public ejaculation before a celebration. The ejaculate is saved in a wad of animal skin and worn later to help conceive children. In this and other tribes, the measure of manhood is actually associated more with the amount of ejaculate and his need than penis size. Frequent ejaculation through masturbation from an early age fosters frequent ejaculation well into adulthood.<ref>The clinical outcome of childhood masturbation. Turk J Pediatr. 2000 Oct-Dec;42(4):304-7.</ref>
+
Nevertheless, 332 §2 has given rise to speculation that either:
  
−
Masturbation is becoming accepted as a healthy practice and safe method for sharing pleasure without some of the dangers that can accompany intercourse. It is socially accepted and even celebrated in certain circles. Group masturbation events can be easily found online. [[Masturbate-a-thon|Masturbation marathons]] are yearly events and are occurring across the globe. These events provide a supportive environment where masturbation can be performed openly among young and old without embarrassment. Participants talk openly with onlookers while masturbating to share techniques and describe their pleasure.<ref>[http://www.masturbate-a-thon.com Masturbate-a-thon by The Center For Sex & Culture]</ref><ref>[http://www.viewlondon.co.uk/masturbation-marathon-london_index.html viewlondon.co.uk article on Masturbation Marathon London]</ref>
+
* The current Pope will resign as his health fails, or
 +
* A properly manifested legal instrument has already been drawn up that puts into effect his resignation in the event of his incapacity to perform his duties.
  
−
== Evolutionary utility ==
+
====Election====
−
Masturbation may increase fertility during intercourse.
 
  
−
Female masturbation alters conditions in the vagina, cervix and uterus, in ways that can alter the chances of conception from intercourse, depending on the timing of the masturbation. A woman's orgasm between one minute before and up to 45 minutes after insemination favors the chances of that sperm reaching her egg. If, for example, she has had intercourse with more than one male, such an orgasm can increase the likelihood of a pregnancy by one of them.<ref>{{cite book |last = Baker |first = Robin |title = Sperm Wars: The Science of Sex |publisher = Diane Books Publishing Company |date=June 1996 |isbn = 978-0788160042}}</ref><ref name=Ejaculate_manipulation_by_females>{{cite journal |last = Baker |first = Robin R. |coauthors = Bellis, Mark A. |year = 1993 |month = Nov |title = Human sperm competition: Ejaculate manipulation by females and a function for the female orgasm. |journal = Animal Behaviour |volume = 46 |issue = 5 |pages = p887, 23p |url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3768816}}</ref> Female masturbation can also provide protection against cervical infections by increasing the acidity of the cervical mucus and by moving debris out of the cervix.<ref name=Ejaculate_manipulation_by_females/>
+
The Pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. In 1059, the electorate was restricted to the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. The Pope is usually a member of the Sacred College of Cardinals, but theoretically any male Catholic (including a layman) may be elected; Pope Urban VI was the last Pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the Dean of the College of Cardinals before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the Pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.
  
−
In males, masturbation flushes out old sperm with low motility from the male's genital tract. The next ejaculate then contains more fresh sperm, which have higher chances of achieving conception during intercourse. If more than one male has intercourse with a female, the sperm with the highest motility will [[Sperm competition|compete]] more effectively.<ref>{{cite paper |author = Thomsen, Ruth |title = Sperm Competition and the Function of Masturbation in Japanese Macaques |publisher = Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München |date=October 2000 |url = http://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/archive/00000105/}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last = Baker |first = Robin R. |coauthors = Bellis, Mark A. |year = 1993 |month = Nov |title = Human sperm competition: Ejaculate adjustment by males and the function of masturbation. |journal = Animal Behaviour |volume = 46 |issue = 5 |pages = p861, 25p |url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3768815}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last = Shackelford |first = Todd K. |coauthors = Goetz, Aaron T. |year = 2007 |month = Feb |title = Adaptation to Sperm Competition in Humans. |journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume = 16 |issue = 1 |pages = p47-50 |url = http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00473.x}}</ref>
+
The Second Council of Lyons was convened on May 7, 1274, to regulate the election of the Pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the Pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a Pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year Sede Vacante following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268. By the mid-Sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the Pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.
  
−
==Health and psychological effects==
+
Traditionally the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection by committee, or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. The reigning Pope, Pope John Paul II, has abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the Sacred College of Cardinals by ballot.
−
=== Benefits ===
 
−
The physical benefits of masturbation and having an orgasm or ejaculating creates heightened arousal while [[epinephrine]] courses through the body, producing the flushed face, shallow breath and post-climactic [[Euphoria (emotion)|euphoria]].<ref>{{Citation |title = Masturbation key to healthy, functional sexual relationships |date = [[April 19]] |year = 2007 |url = http://badgerherald.com/oped/2007/04/19/masturbation_key_to_.php |accessdate = July 2007}}</ref> It is held in many mental health circles that masturbation can relieve [[clinical depression|depression]]{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, stress and lead to a higher sense of [[Self-esteem|self-worth]] (Hurlbert & Whittaker, 1991). Masturbation can also be particularly useful in relationships where one partner wants more sex than the other – in which case masturbation provides a balancing effect and thus a more harmonious relationship.<ref>{{Citation |title = Masturbation key to healthy, functional sexual relationships |date = [[April 19]] |year = 2007 |url = http://badgerherald.com/oped/2007/04/19/masturbation_key_to_.php |accessdate = July 2007}} However, the alleged benefits of masturbation must be qualified with the acknowledgment that the practice is just as likely to exacerbate feelings of loneliness. </ref>
 
  
−
[[Mutual masturbation]], the act by which two or more partners stimulate themselves in the presence of each other, allows a couple to reveal the "map to [their] pleasure centers". Witnessing a partner masturbate is an educational activity to find out the method a partner pleases him- or herself, allowing each partner to learn exactly how the other enjoys being touched.<ref>{{Citation |title = Masturbation key to healthy, functional sexual relationships |date = [[April 19]] |year = 2007 |url = http://badgerherald.com/oped/2007/04/19/masturbation_key_to_.php |accessdate = September 2007}}</ref>
+
The election of the Pope almost always takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a meeting called a "conclave" (so called because twenty days after the Pope's death, the present cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, cum clavi, until they elect a new Pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before depositing his vote in a large chalice placed on the altar. Each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who then pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of Universi Dominici Gregis the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days).
  
−
In 2003, an Australian research team led by Graham Giles of [[The Cancer Council Australia]]<ref>[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1464-410X.2003.04319.x/abs/ Sexual factors and prostate cancer]</ref> concluded that frequent masturbation by males appears to help prevent the development of [[prostate cancer]]. The study also indicated that this would be more helpful than ejaculation through sexual intercourse because intercourse can transmit diseases that may increase the [[Cervical cancer#Causes|risk of cancer]] instead. Also, frequent ejaculation is more easily obtained and sustained over time with the aid of masturbation.
+
One of the most famous parts of the conclave is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from St Peter's Square. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or "fumata nera." (Traditionally wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke ("fumata bianca") through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new Pope.
  
−
A study published in 1997 found an inverse association between death from coronary heart disease and frequency of orgasm even given the risk that myocardial ischaemia and myocardial infarction can be triggered by sexual activity. Excerpt, "The association between frequency or orgasm and all cause mortality was also examined using the midpoint of each response category recoded as number of orgasms per year. The age adjusted odds ratio for an increase of 100 orgasms per year was 0.64 (0.44 to 0.95)." That is, a difference between any two subjects appeared when one subject ejaculated at around two or more more times per week than the other. Assuming a broad range average of between 3 to 5 ejaculations per week for healthy males, this would mean 5 to 7 ejaculations per week. This is consistent with a 2003 Australia article on the benefits against prostate cancer.<ref>{{Citation
+
The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto," his reign as Pope begins at that instant, not at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new Pope then announces the name he has chosen for himself (starting in 535, the Pope has customarily chosen a new name for himself during his Pontificate; the names are not based on any system other than general honorifics, and have been based on immediate predecessors, mentors, and political similarity).
−
| title = Sex and death: are they related? Findings from the Caerphilly cohort study
 
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| date = December 20
 
−
| year = 1997
 
−
| url = http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/315/7123/1641
 
−
| accessdate = July 2007 }}</ref>
 
  
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Masturbation is also seen as a sexual technique that protects individuals from the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. Support for such a view, and for making it part of the American sex education curriculum, led to the dismissal of US Surgeon General [[Joycelyn Elders]] during the Clinton administration.
+
The new Pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white Papal vestments ("immantatio") await: literally small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and re-emerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new Pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" by the Cardinal Camerlegno, whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. The Pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio"), and to receive his blessing.
  
−
Sexual climax, from masturbation or otherwise, leaves one in a relaxed and contented state. This is frequently followed closely by drowsiness and sleep – particularly when one masturbates in bed.
+
The senior cardinal deacon then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a Pope!")
  
−
Some professionals consider masturbation to function as a cardiovascular workout.<ref>{{cite journal | coauthors = Benjamin Graber, Scott Balogh, Denis Fitzpatrick and Shelton Hendricks
+
Until 1978, the Pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to St. Peter's Basilica, with the newly-elected Pope borne in the sedia gestatoria. There the Pope was crowned with the triregnum and he gave his first blessing as Pope, the famous Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition Sic transit gloria mundi ("Thus fades worldly glory"). Traditionally, the pope-elect takes the Papal oath (the so called "Oath against modernism") at his coronation, but John Paul I and later John Paul II have refused to do so.
−
| title = Cardiovascular changes associated with sexual arousal and orgasm in men
 
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| journal = Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment
 
−
| volume = 4
 
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| issue = 2
 
−
| pages = 151-165
 
−
| publisher = Springer Netherlands
 
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| date = June, 1991
 
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| url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/m28k5475630n5872/
 
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| doi = 10.1007/BF00851611
 
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| id = 1079-0632 (Print) 1573-286X (Online)
 
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| accessdate = 2004-12-28 }}</ref> Though research is still as yet scant, those suffering from cardiovascular disorders (particularly those recovering from myocardial infarction, or heart attacks) should resume physical activity (including sexual intercourse and masturbation) gradually and with the frequency and rigor which their physical status will allow. This limitation can serve as encouragement to follow through with physical therapy sessions to help improve endurance.
 
  
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=== Blood pressure ===
+
As has been hitherto noted, the Latin term Sede Vacante ("vacant seat") refers to a Papal interregnum, or the period between the death of the Pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the name Sedevacantist, which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a Sede Vacante; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and especially the replacement of the Tridentine Mass with the Novus Ordo Missae are heretical, and that, per the dogma of Papal infallibility (see above), it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things.  
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Both sex and masturbation lower blood pressure. A small study has shown that in one test group, recent full intercourse resulted in the lowest average blood pressure in stressful situations. Masturbation then led to lower blood pressure than did no recent sexual activity.<ref>Brody, Stuart. "Blood pressure reactivity to stress is better for people who recently had penile-vaginal intercourse than for people who had other or no sexual activity." ''Biological Psychology'', Volume 71, Issue 2, February 2006, pages 214-222.</ref>
 
  
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=== Insertion ===
 
−
Objects inserted into the vagina, anus/rectum or urethra should be clean and of a kind that will not scratch or break. Care should be taken not to fully insert anything into the anus – any object used should have a flared or flanged base; otherwise retrieval can require medical intervention. Modern [[dildo]]s and [[Butt plug|anal plugs]] are designed with this feature.
 
  
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=== Pregnancy ===
+
===Objections to the Papacy===
−
Masturbation involving both a man and a woman (see ''[[Non-penetrative sex#Mutual masturbation|mutual masturbation]]'') can result in pregnancy only if [[semen]] contacts the [[vulva]]. Masturbation with a partner can also theoretically result in transmission of sexually transmitted diseases by contact with bodily fluids.
 
  
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=== Problems for males ===
+
The Pope's position as Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is dogmatic and therefore not open to debate or dispute within the Catholic Church; the First Vatican Council anathematised all who dispute the Pope's primacy of honour and of jurisdiction (it is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution). However, the Pope's authority is not undisputed outside the Catholic Church; these objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as (1.) objections to the extent of the primacy of the Pope; and (2.) objections to the institution of the Papacy itself.
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A man whose penis has suffered a blunt trauma or injury during intercourse may rarely sustain a [[penile fracture]]<ref>[http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3415.htm eMedicine article on Penile Fracture and Trauma]</ref> or suffer from [[Peyronie's disease]].<ref>[http://www.aafp.org/afp/990800ap/549.html American Academy of Family Physicians article on Peyronie's Disease: Current Management]</ref> [[Phimosis]] is "a contracted foreskin (that) may cause trouble by hurting when an attempt is made to pull the foreskin back".<ref>[http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/facts/phimosis.htm netdoctor.co.uk article on Foreskin contraction (phimosis)]</ref> In these cases, any energetic manipulation of the penis can be problematic.
 
  
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=== Compulsive masturbation ===
+
Some non-Catholic Christian denominations, such as the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion, accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, and therefore accept (to varying extents) the claim that the Pope as successor to St. Peter is heir to Petrine primacy of honour. These churches deny, however, the claim that the Pope is also heir to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction. Because none of these denominations recognise the First Vatican Council as ecumenical, they regard its definitions of Papal jurisdiction and infallibility (and anathematisation of those who do not accept them) as non-binding.
−
[[Sigmund Freud]] argued that every normal child usually experiments with many types of [[autoerotic]] sexual stimulation. Social repressions of sexuality reached their peak in the [[Victorian era]] when popular authors wrote books threatening young children with [[mental deficiency]] or [[insanity]] if they indulged in any form of masturbation. Actually there is no scientific evidence of any causative relationship between autoeroticism and any form of mental disorder. Though mentally disturbed persons characteristically show poor judgment in expressing sexuality, this may be understood as a symptom rather than a cause.
 
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Each child however, must learn the appropriate social and legal limitations relating to expressing sexuality.
 
−
Masturbating frequently presents no physical, mental or emotional risk in itself,<ref>[http://www.vpul.upenn.edu/ohe/library/Sexhealth/articles/masturbating.htm University of Pennsylvania Office of Health Education article on masturbation]</ref> but masturbation can be used to relieve boredom or stress. In either case, as with any "nervous habit", it is more helpful to consider the causes of the boredom or of the stress, rather than try to repress the masturbation.<ref>[http://www.chmed.com/mod.php?mod=userpage&menu=1907&page_id=142&PHPSESSID=a76dc0f6fb1882506f5666b63fb98062 Childrens Medical Office of North Andover, P.C. article on Masturbation in Early Childhood]</ref>
 
  
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There is some discussion between professionals and other interested parties as to the existence or validity of [[sexual addiction]]s. Nevertheless, there are lists of warning signs such as when sexual activity affects a person's ability to function in everyday life, or is placing them at risk, for example, of pursuing illegal or destructive activities. Very frequent and compulsive masturbation may be seen as a sign of sexual addiction.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/relationships/sex_and_sexual_health/probs_sexaddiction.shtml BBC Relationships: Addicted to sex]</ref>
+
Other non-Catholic Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, or do not understand it in hierarchical terms, and therefore do not accept the claim that the Pope is heir either to Petrine primacy of honour or to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction. The Papacy's complex relationship with the Roman and Byzantine Empires, and other secular states, and the Papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are another focal point of these objections; as is the monarchical character of the office of Pope. In Western Christianity, these objections — and the vehement rhetoric they have at times been cast in — are products of the Protestant Reformation. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the Antichrist or one of the beasts spoken of in the Book of Revelation. These denominations tend to be more heterogeneous amongst themselves than the aforementioned hierarchical churches, and their views regarding the Papacy and its institutional legitimacy (or lack thereof) vary considerably.
  
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== Masturbation in history and society ==
+
Some objectors to the papacy use empirical arguments, pointing to the corrupt characters of some of the holders of that office. For instance, some argue that claimed successors to St. Peter, like Popes Alexander VI and Callixtus III from the Borgia family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the Catholic Church. Defenders of the papacy argue that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men (citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle Judas Iscariot, and even St. Peter after he denied Jesus). They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that this is evidence that the office is divinely protected.
−
=== Antiquity ===
 
  
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There are depictions of male masturbation in prehistoric [[rock painting]]s around the world. Most early people seem to have connected human sexuality with abundance in nature. A clay figurine of the 4th millennium BC from a temple site on the island of [[Malta]], depicts a woman masturbating.<ref>"The [[Ħaġar Qim]] woman is... masturbating, with one hand languidly supporting her head. " Taylor, Timothy. ''Uncovering the prehistory of sex'', British Archaeology, no 15, June 1996: [http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba15/ba15feat.html].</ref> However, in the ancient world depictions of male masturbation are far more common.
+
==Quotes==
  
−
From the earliest records, ancient [[Sumer]] had a relaxed attitude toward sex, and masturbation was a popular technique for enhancing potency, either alone or with a partner.<ref>Dening, Sarah.  ''The Mythology of Sex''. Macmillian 1996, ISBN 978 0028612072</ref><ref>Dening, Sarah, ''The Mythology of Sex'' [http://www.ishtartemple.org/myth.htm Chapter 3]</ref>
+
==Links==
 +
* [http://www.papalencyclicals.net/ Papal Encyclicals Online]
  
−
Male masturbation became an even more important image in [[ancient Egypt]]: when performed by a god it could be considered a creative or magical act: the god [[Atum]] was believed to have created the universe by masturbating to ejaculation, and the ebb and flow of the [[Nile]] was attributed to the frequency of his ejaculations. Egyptian [[pharoahs]], in response to this, were at one time required to masturbate ceremonially into the Nile.<ref> Johnathan Margolis, "O: The intimate history of the orgasm", 2003. p134</ref>
+
{{returnto}} [[Roman Catholicism]]
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The ancient [[Greeks]] had a more relaxed attitude toward masturbation than the Egyptians did, regarding the act as a normal and healthy substitute for other forms of sexual pleasure. They considered it a safety valve against destructive sexual frustration. The Greeks also dealt with female masturbation in both their art and writings. One common term used for it was ''anaphlan,'' which roughly translates as "up-fire".
 
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[[Diogenes of Sinope|Diogenes]], speaking in jest, credited the god [[Hermes]] with its invention: he allegedly took pity on his son [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]], who was pining for [[Echo (mythology)|Echo]] but unable to seduce her, and taught him the trick of masturbation in order to relieve his suffering. Pan in his turn taught the habit to young shepherds.<ref>Dio Crysostom, ''Discourses,'' iv.20</ref>
 
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=== Religious views ===
 
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{{main|Religious views on masturbation}}
 
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:''Also see [[Sexuality and religion|Sexuality and Religion]] for broad coverage of this topic''
 
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Religions vary broadly in their views of masturbation, from completely impermissible<ref>{{cite web
 
−
|url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm#2352
 
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|title = Catechism of the Catholic Church
 
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|accessdate = 2007-10-08
 
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|quote = Both the Magisterium of the Church, in the course of a constant tradition, and the moral sense of the faithful have been in no doubt and have firmly maintained that masturbation is an intrinsically and gravely disordered action.
 
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}}</ref> to encouraged as a way to achieve greater spirituality (see, for example [[Tantric sexuality]] and [[Taoist sexual practices]]). In the modern [[St. Priapus Church]], group male masturbation is a form of worship.<ref>Wayne Dynes (ed., 1990). ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' (New York: Garland) p. 779.</ref>
 
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=== Philosophical arguments ===
 
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[[Immanuel Kant]] regarded masturbation as a violation of the moral law. In the ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (1797) he made the ''[[a posteriori]]'' argument that 'such an unnatural use of one's sexual attributes' strikes 'everyone upon his thinking of it' as 'a violation of one's duty to himself', and suggested that it was regarded as immoral even to give it its proper name (unlike the case of the similarly undutiful act of [[suicide]]). He went on, however, to acknowledge that 'it is not so easy to produce a rational demonstration of the inadmissibility of that unnatural use', but ultimately concluded that its immorality lay in the fact that 'a man gives up his personality … when he uses himself merely as a means for the gratification of an animal drive'.
 
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Subsequent critics of masturbation tended to argue against it on more physiological grounds, however (see [[Masturbation#Medical attitudes|medical attitudes]]).
 
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=== Medical attitudes ===
 
−
{{Refimprovesect|date=March 2008}}
 
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The first use of the word "onanism" to consistently and specifically refer to masturbation appears to be ''Onania'', an anonymous pamphlet first distributed in London in 1716. It drew on familiar themes of sin and vice, this time in particular against the "heinous sin" of "self-pollution". After dire warnings that those who so indulged would suffer [[impotence]], [[gonorrhea]], [[epilepsy]] and a wasting of the faculties (included were letters and testimonials supposedly from young men ill and dying from the effects of compulsive masturbation) the pamphlet then goes on to recommend as an effective remedy a "Strengthening Tincture" at 10 shillings a bottle and a "Prolific Powder" at 12 shillings a bag, available from a local shop.
 
−
[[Image:Sexpatent01-excerpt.png|thumb|left|A [[patented]] device designed to prevent masturbation by inflicting electric shocks upon the perpetrator, by ringing an alarm bell, and through spikes at the inner edge of the tube into which the penis is inserted. The entire patent document: [[Media:Sexpatent01.png|Page 1]], [[Media:Sexpatent02.png|2]], [[Media:Sexpatent03.png|3]], [[Media:Sexpatent04.png|4]].]]
 
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One of the many horrified by the descriptions of malady in ''Onania'' was the notable Swiss physician [[Samuel-Auguste Tissot]]. In 1760, he published ''L'Onanisme'', his own comprehensive medical treatise on the purported ill-effects of masturbation. Citing case studies of young male masturbators amongst his patients in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]] as basis for his reasoning, Tissot argued that semen was an "essential oil" and "stimulus" that, when lost from the body in great amounts, would cause "a perceptible reduction of strength, of memory and even of reason; blurred vision, all the nervous disorders, all types of [[gout]] and [[rheumatism]], weakening of the organs of generation, blood in the urine, disturbance of the appetite, headaches and a great number of other disorders."
 
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Though Tissot's ideas are now considered [[hypothesis|conjectural]] at best, his treatise was presented as a scholarly, scientific work in a time when experimental physiology was practically nonexistent. The authority with which the work was subsequently treated – Tissot's arguments were even acknowledged and echoed by luminaries such as [[Kant]] and [[Voltaire]] – arguably turned the perception of masturbation in Western medicine over the next two centuries into that of a debilitating illness.
 
−
 
 
−
This continued well into the [[Victorian Era]], where such medical censure of masturbation was in line with the widespread social [[conservatism]] and opposition to open sexual behavior common at the time.<ref>[http://www.noharmm.org/paige.htm The Ritual of Circumcision]</ref><ref>Stengers, Jean; van Neck, Anne. ''Masturbation: the history of a great terror''. New York: Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 0-312-22443-5.</ref> There were recommendations to have boys' pants constructed so that the genitals could not be touched through the pockets, for schoolchildren to be seated at special desks to prevent their crossing their legs in class and for girls to be forbidden from riding horses and bicycles because the sensations these activities produce were considered too similar to masturbation. Boys and young men who nevertheless continued to indulge in the practice were branded as "weak-minded."<ref>[http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a5/Sexpatent02.png Surgical Appliance]</ref> Many "remedies" were devised, including eating a bland, meatless diet. This approach was promoted by [[John Harvey Kellogg|Dr. John Harvey Kellogg]] (inventor of [[corn flakes]]) and [[Sylvester Graham|Rev. Sylvester Graham]] (inventor of [[Graham cracker]]s). The medical literature of the times describes procedures for electric shock treatment, [[infibulation]], restraining devices like [[chastity belt]]s and [[straitjacket]]s, [[cauterization]] or – as a last resort – wholesale [[Excision|surgical excision]] of the genitals. Routine neonatal [[circumcision]] was widely adopted in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] at least partly because of its believed preventive effect against masturbation (see also [[History of male circumcision#Male circumcision to prevent masturbation|History of male circumcision]]). In later decades, the more drastic of these measures were increasingly replaced with psychological techniques, such as warnings that masturbation led to blindness, hairy hands or stunted growth. Some of these persist as myths even today.
 
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[[Image:Chastity belt Heyser 0.png|thumb|Image of a [[chastity belt]] from a patent document. For entire document, see: [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 1.png|Page 1]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 2.png|2]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 3.png|3]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 4.png|4]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 5.png|5]], [[:Image:Chastity belt Heyser 6.png|6]]]]
 
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At the same time, the supposed medical condition of [[hysteria]]&mdash;from the Greek ''hystera'' or uterus&mdash;was being treated by what would now be described as medically administered or medically prescribed masturbation for women. Techniques included use of the earliest vibrators and rubbing the genitals with placebo creams.<ref name=Maines>{{cite book|id=ISBN 0-8018-6646-4|title=The Technology of Orgasm: "Hysteria", the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction|author=Rachel P. Maines|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore|year=1999}}</ref>
 
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−
Medical attitudes toward masturbation began to change at the beginning of the 20th century when [[H. Havelock Ellis]], in his seminal 1897 work ''Studies in the Psychology of Sex'', questioned Tissot's premises, cheerfully named famous men of the era who masturbated and then set out to disprove (with the work of more recent physicians) each of the claimed diseases of which masturbation was purportedly the cause. "We reach the conclusion", he wrote, "that in the case of moderate masturbation in healthy, well-born individuals, no seriously pernicious results necessarily follow."
 
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[[Robert Baden-Powell]], the founder of [[The Scout Association]], incorporated a passage in the 1914 edition of ''[[Scouting for Boys]]'' warning against the dangers of masturbation. This passage stated that the individual should run away from the temptation by performing physical activity which was supposed to tire the individual so that masturbation could not be performed. By 1930, however, Dr. [[F. W. W. Griffin]], editor of ''The Scouter,'' had written in a book for Rover Scouts that the temptation to masturbate was "a quite natural stage of development" and, citing [[H. Havelock Ellis|Ellis]]' work, held that "the effort to achieve complete abstinence was a very serious error."
 
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The works of Sexologist [[Alfred Kinsey]] during the 1940s and 1950s insisted that masturbation was an instinctive behavior for both males and females, citing the results of Gallup Poll surveys indicating how common it was in the United States. Some critics of this theory held that his research was biased and that the Gallup Poll method was redundant for defining "natural behavior".
 
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−
In 1994, when the [[Surgeon General of the United States]], Dr. [[Joycelyn Elders]], mentioned as an aside that it should be mentioned in school [[curriculum|curricula]] that masturbation was safe and healthy, she was forced to resign,<ref>[http://www.jackinworld.com/library/articles/elders.html JackinLibrary: Joycelyn Elders]</ref> with opponents asserting that she was promoting the teaching of ''how'' to masturbate. Many believe this was the result of her long history of promoting controversial viewpoints and not due solely to her public mention of masturbation.
 
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=== Law ===
 
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The legal status of masturbation throughout history has varied from virtually unlimited acceptance to complete illegality. In a 1640s law code for the [[Puritan]] colony of [[New Haven, Connecticut]] in the 17th century "[[blasphemy|blasphemers]], [[Homosexuality|homosexuals]] and masturbators" were eligible for the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]].<ref>{{cite book
 
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| last = James
 
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| first = Lawrence
 
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| authorlink = Lawrence James
 
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| title = The Rise and Fall of the British Empire
 
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| publisher = St. Martin's Griffin
 
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|date=[[September 15]], [[1997]]
 
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| pages = 41
 
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| isbn = 978-0312169855 }} The context is a discussion of the social habits of the early North American colonists.</ref>
 
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=== Masturbate-a-thon ===
 
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{{main | Masturbate-a-thon}}
 
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[[Image:CSC Herme Masturbate-a-Thon Logo Original for Wiki.jpg|thumb|right]]
 
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Masturbate-a-thons are public, charity events that are "intended to encourage people to explore safer sex, talk about masturbation and lift the taboos that still surround the subject."<ref name="Masturbate-a-thon.co.uk">{{cite web
 
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| title = Masturbate-a-thon website
 
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| publisher = Masturbate-a-thon
 
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| date = 2006-08-04
 
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| url = http://www.masturbate-a-thon.co.uk/
 
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| format = html
 
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| accessdate = 2006-08-06}}</ref> May is considered "Masturbation Month" by sex-positive organizations and activists, including [[Betty Dodson]], [[Joani Blank]], [[Susan Block]], [[Kyla Zellers]], [[Carol Queen]], and [[Gary Francis Fanning Jr.]].
 
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== Euphemisms ==
 
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A large variety of [[euphemism]]s and [[dysphemism]]s exist which describe masturbation. For a complete list of terms, see the entry for ''[[wikt:Wikisaurus:masturbate|masturbate]]'' in [[Wiktionary|Wikisaurus]].
 
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== Masturbation in media ==
 
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===Paintings and drawings===
 
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[[Image:Klimt Mulher sentada.jpg|thumb|A Young Woman Masturbating, depicted by [[Gustav Klimt]]]]
 
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There are depictions of male masturbation in prehistoric [[rock painting]]s around the world. Most early people seem to have connected human sexuality with abundance in nature. A clay figurine of the 4th millennium BC from a temple site on the island of [[Malta]], depicts a woman masturbating. However, in the ancient world depictions of male masturbation are far more common.
 
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===Film===
 
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<!-- Please expand this section, but do not attempt to compile a list of every masturbation scene ever filmed.  Any unsourced content will be removed. -->
 
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A number of films feature masturbation scenes.
 
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===Music===
 
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In popular music, there are a handful of songs that deal with the issue of masturbation. Some of the earliest examples are "[[My Ding-a-Ling]]" by [[Chuck Berry]] and "[[Pictures of Lily]]" by [[The Who]].<ref>"''Merely a ditty about masturbation and the importance of it to a young man. I was really diggin' at my folks who, when catching me at it, would talk in loud voices in the corridor outside my room. "Why can't he go with girls like other boys?''" Quote by [[Pete Townshend]]</ref>
 
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Some of the more recent popular songs are "[[Turning Japanese]]" by [[The Vapors]], a reference to the Oriental facial features people get at the moment of climax and "[[She Bop]]" by [[Cyndi Lauper]] which was so obviously about masturbation that it was required to have a [[parental advisory]] sticker. In an interview Lauper admitted recording the song naked. "[[I Touch Myself]]" by [[Divinyls]] is a celebration of female masturbation. "[[Touch of My Hand]]" by [[Britney Spears]] is also about how female masturbation is normal.
 
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The song [[Orgasm Addict]] by The [[Buzzcocks]] also features lyrics centered around the theme of masturbation. Another song, [[Wow, I Can Get Sexual Too]] By [[Say Anything]] has a chorus that repeats the lines "She Touched Herself".
 
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The song [[Masturbation]] by rock group [[Mindless Self Indulgence]] also deals with the concept of auto-erotic activity in a [[Punk subculture|punk]] framework.
 
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===Literature=== 
 
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In October 1972, an important censorship case was held in Australia, leading to the banning of [[Philip Roth]]'s novel ''[[Portnoy's Complaint]]'' in that country due to its masturbation references. The censorship led to public outcry at the time. <ref>[http://www.crikey.com.au/Politics/20060829-Censorship-and-Don-Chipp.html Crikey - Don Chipp: larrikin, censor, and party founder - Don Chipp: larrikin, censor, and party founder<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
 
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== Masturbation in other animal species ==
 
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{{main | Animal sexuality#Autoeroticism (masturbation)}}
 
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Masturbatory behavior has been documented in a very wide range of species. Individuals of some species have been known to create tools for masturbation purposes.<ref name="Bagemihl,1999"/>
 

Revision as of 05:51, 21 September 2008

The Papacy
RELATED TOPICS
SERMONS, ESSAYS AND OPINIONS
CONTENTS

The Pope is the head of Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Catholic Churches. In addition to this spiritual role, the Pope is also head of the independent, sovereign State of the Vatican City, a city-state entirely surrounded by the city of Rome. Prior to 1870, the Pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of central Italy, a territory formally known as the "Patrimony of St Peter" under the terms of the Donation of Constantine, but more familiar as the Papal States. The office of the Pope is informally called the Papacy and formally called the Pontificate; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the Holy See (Sancta Sedes). Catholics worldwide consider each pope to be Jesus' representative on Earth. The current Pope is Benedict XVI.

Other Popes

An antipope is a person who claims the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church, or to confusion as to who is the legitimate Pope at the time.

The heads of the Coptic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria are also called "Popes" for historical reasons, with the former being called "Coptic Pope" or "Pope of Alexandria" and the latter called "Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa"; the parallel construction "Pope of Rome" is uncommon but occasionally used.

Word origins

The word "Pope" is derived from the Greek word pappas ("father") and was originally used in an affectionate sense of any priest or bishop (in the exact same way that modern priests are addressed as "Father"). In the 4th and 5th centuries, pappas (Latinized as papa, a form still preserved in Spanish and Portuguese was still frequently used of any bishop in the West, although it gradually came to be increasingly restricted to its modern, exclusive use by the Bishop of Rome. In the East, especially in Greece and Russia, priests are still referred to as pappas.

As early as the third century, the Bishop of Alexandria exercised a high degree of central control of suffragan Egyptian bishops, in a manner consciously similar to the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome; the Alexandrian archbishop was given precedence immediately after the Roman pontiff by the Council of Nicea, and adopted the title "Pope of Alexandria," which still forms an integral part of the titles of the Greek Orthodox "Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa" and of the Coptic "Pope of Alexandria and of the See of Saint Mark the Apostle."

Office and nature

The title "Pope" is an informal one; the formal title of the Pope is "Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, Servant of the Servants of God," although this is rarely seen or used in full (by comparison, the formal title of the Orthodox Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria is "Successor of Saint Mark the Apostle, Shepherd of Shepherds, Father of Fathers, Supreme Pontiff of All Metropolitans and Bishops, Judge of the World, and Beloved of Christ", often called the "Ecumenical Judge"; the Coptic Pope is styled "Pope and Patriarch of the See of Alexandria and of All the Predication of the Evangelist St. Mark"). In canon law he is referred to as the "Roman Pontiff" (Pontifex Romanus). The Pope is styled "Your Holiness" (Sanctitas Vostra) and is frequently referred to as "the Holy Father."

The Pope's signature is usually in the format "NN. PP. x" (e.g., Pope Paul VI signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the ancient title Pontifex Maximus, literally "Greatest Bridge-maker", but usually translated "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of Papal bulls is customarily NN. Episcopus Ecclesia Catholicae ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is NN. Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"), the latter title dating to the time of Pope Gregory I the Great. Other titles used in some official capacity include Summus Pontifex ("Highest Pontiff"), Sanctissimus Pater and Beatissimus Pater ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), Sanctissimus Dominus Noster ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the Mediaeval period, Dominus Apostolicus ("Apostolic Lord").

The Pope's official residence is the Palace of the Vatican, and he also possesses a summer palace at Castel Gandolfo (believed to be situated on the site of the ancient city-state Alba Longa). Historically the official residence of the Pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor Constantinus I. The former Papal summer palace, the Quirinal Palace, has subsequently been the official residence of the Kings of Italy and Presidents of the Italian Republic.

Contrary to popular belief, it is the Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) and not his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City) which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the Pope's court (the Roman Curia) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church. The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the Pope's various honours, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle St. Peter (see Apostolic Succession). Consequently Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The Pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not obligated to reside in Rome; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the Pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378 the Popes resided not in Rome but in Avignon, a period often called the Babylonian Captivity in allusion to the Biblical exile of Israel (see Avignon Papacy).

Catholic tradition maintains that the institution of the Pontificate can be found in the Bible, and cites certain key passages in support of this contention. Chief among these passages is Matthew 16:18-19, wherein Jesus Christ says to Peter:

"Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jona! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but My Father Who is in Heaven. And I tell you, you are Peter ("The Rock" derived from Greek), and on this rock I will build My Church, and the gates of Hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give you the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven: and whatever you bind on Earth shall be bound in Heaven, and whatever you loose on Earth shall be loosed in Heaven".

Status and authority

The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council in its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ (July 18, 1870). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of God was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the apostle was not appointed by Christ the lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole church militant; or that it was a primacy of honour only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be anathema."

The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the chair of Peter obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the lord Himself (that is to say, by divine law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema."

The Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the primacy of the Roman pontiff," states that (s.1) "the definition of the ecumenical council of Florence, which must be believed by all faithful Christians, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a world-wide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a pre-eminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "clergy and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of hierarchical subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world."

The powers of the Pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgement" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgement thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the Pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of Papal infallibility, sc. such that

when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable.

Political role

Though the progressive Christianisation of the Roman Empire in the Fourth century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the Pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil leader was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I's confrontation with Attila in 452 and was substantially increased in 754, when the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short donated to the Pope a strip of territory which formed the core of the so-called Papal States (properly the Patrimony of St. Peter). In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire; from that date it became the Pope's prerogative to crown the Emperor, a tradition which continued until Emperor Charles V, the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope (subsequent Emperors never received coronation), and which was partially revived by Napoléon Bonaparte. As has been hitherto mentioned, the Pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy.

In addition to the Pope's position as a territorial ruler and foremost prince bishop of Christendom (especially prominent with the Renaissance Popes like Pope Alexander VI an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politico, and Pope Julius II, a formidable general and statesman) and as the spiritual head of the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Alexander III), the Pope also possessed a degree of political and temporal authority in his capacity as Supreme Pontiff. Some of the most striking examples of Papal political authority are the Bull Laudabiliter in 1155 (authorising Henry II of England to invade Ireland), the Bull Inter Caeteras in 1493 (leading to the Treaty of Torsedillas in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule) the Bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570 (excommunicating Elizabeth I of England and purporting to release all her subjects from their allegiance to her), the Bull Inter Gravissimas in 1582 (establishing the Gregorian Calendar).

Death or Resignation, and election

Death

The current regulations regarding a Papal interregnum -- i.e., a Sede Vacante "vacant see" -- were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the Sede Vacante, the Sacred College of Cardinals, composed of the Pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Cardinal Chamberlain; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See. Any decision that needs the assent of the Pope has to wait until a new Pope has been elected and takes office.

The Pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late Pope's head thrice with a golden hammer and calling his birth name three times. A doctor may or may not have already determined that the Pope had passed away. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the Fisherman's Ring. Usually the ring is on the Pope's right hand. But with Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign, and left it in his desk. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlin cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased Pope's seals are defaced, to keep the Pope's seal from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.

The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral; the Popes of the Twentieth century have all been interred in St. Peter's Basilica, but it is expected that the reigning Pope, Pope John Paul II, will be interred in his native Poland. A nine-day period of mourning (novem dialis) follows after the interment of the late Pope.

Resignation

The Code of Canon Law 332 §2 states, If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone.

It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that the Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper Corriere della Sera.

Nevertheless, 332 §2 has given rise to speculation that either:

  • The current Pope will resign as his health fails, or
  • A properly manifested legal instrument has already been drawn up that puts into effect his resignation in the event of his incapacity to perform his duties.

Election

The Pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. In 1059, the electorate was restricted to the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. The Pope is usually a member of the Sacred College of Cardinals, but theoretically any male Catholic (including a layman) may be elected; Pope Urban VI was the last Pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the Dean of the College of Cardinals before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the Pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.

The Second Council of Lyons was convened on May 7, 1274, to regulate the election of the Pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the Pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a Pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year Sede Vacante following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268. By the mid-Sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the Pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.

Traditionally the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection by committee, or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. The reigning Pope, Pope John Paul II, has abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the Sacred College of Cardinals by ballot.

The election of the Pope almost always takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a meeting called a "conclave" (so called because twenty days after the Pope's death, the present cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, cum clavi, until they elect a new Pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before depositing his vote in a large chalice placed on the altar. Each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who then pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of Universi Dominici Gregis the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days).

One of the most famous parts of the conclave is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from St Peter's Square. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or "fumata nera." (Traditionally wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke ("fumata bianca") through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new Pope.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto," his reign as Pope begins at that instant, not at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new Pope then announces the name he has chosen for himself (starting in 535, the Pope has customarily chosen a new name for himself during his Pontificate; the names are not based on any system other than general honorifics, and have been based on immediate predecessors, mentors, and political similarity).

The new Pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white Papal vestments ("immantatio") await: literally small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and re-emerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new Pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" by the Cardinal Camerlegno, whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. The Pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio"), and to receive his blessing.

The senior cardinal deacon then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a Pope!")

Until 1978, the Pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to St. Peter's Basilica, with the newly-elected Pope borne in the sedia gestatoria. There the Pope was crowned with the triregnum and he gave his first blessing as Pope, the famous Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition Sic transit gloria mundi ("Thus fades worldly glory"). Traditionally, the pope-elect takes the Papal oath (the so called "Oath against modernism") at his coronation, but John Paul I and later John Paul II have refused to do so.

As has been hitherto noted, the Latin term Sede Vacante ("vacant seat") refers to a Papal interregnum, or the period between the death of the Pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the name Sedevacantist, which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a Sede Vacante; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and especially the replacement of the Tridentine Mass with the Novus Ordo Missae are heretical, and that, per the dogma of Papal infallibility (see above), it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things.


Objections to the Papacy

The Pope's position as Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is dogmatic and therefore not open to debate or dispute within the Catholic Church; the First Vatican Council anathematised all who dispute the Pope's primacy of honour and of jurisdiction (it is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution). However, the Pope's authority is not undisputed outside the Catholic Church; these objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as (1.) objections to the extent of the primacy of the Pope; and (2.) objections to the institution of the Papacy itself.

Some non-Catholic Christian denominations, such as the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion, accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, and therefore accept (to varying extents) the claim that the Pope as successor to St. Peter is heir to Petrine primacy of honour. These churches deny, however, the claim that the Pope is also heir to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction. Because none of these denominations recognise the First Vatican Council as ecumenical, they regard its definitions of Papal jurisdiction and infallibility (and anathematisation of those who do not accept them) as non-binding.

Other non-Catholic Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, or do not understand it in hierarchical terms, and therefore do not accept the claim that the Pope is heir either to Petrine primacy of honour or to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction. The Papacy's complex relationship with the Roman and Byzantine Empires, and other secular states, and the Papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are another focal point of these objections; as is the monarchical character of the office of Pope. In Western Christianity, these objections — and the vehement rhetoric they have at times been cast in — are products of the Protestant Reformation. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the Antichrist or one of the beasts spoken of in the Book of Revelation. These denominations tend to be more heterogeneous amongst themselves than the aforementioned hierarchical churches, and their views regarding the Papacy and its institutional legitimacy (or lack thereof) vary considerably.

Some objectors to the papacy use empirical arguments, pointing to the corrupt characters of some of the holders of that office. For instance, some argue that claimed successors to St. Peter, like Popes Alexander VI and Callixtus III from the Borgia family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the Catholic Church. Defenders of the papacy argue that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men (citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle Judas Iscariot, and even St. Peter after he denied Jesus). They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that this is evidence that the office is divinely protected.

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